I 


it     0f 


Division 


Shelf.. 

Received  .<     '  187, 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


GIFT  OF 


DANIEL    C .     OILMAN. 


TEUTONIC    ETYMOLOGY. 


THE 


FORMATION 


OP 


TEUTONIC    WORDS 


ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 


JOSIAH    W.    GIBBS, 


PROF.     SAC 


PECK,    WHITE,    &    PECK,    PUBLISHERS. 

NEW  YORK:    JOHN  WILEY. 
BOSTON:    J.   E.    TILTON  &  CO. 

1860. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1860, 

BY   JOSIAH    WlLLARD    GlBBS, 

in  the  Clerk's  office,  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


PRINTED     BY     E.HAYES, 
NEW    HAVEN,     CONN. 


PREFACE. 


IT  is  often  remarked,  especially  by  foreign  writers,  that  the  English 
language  needs  a  more  scientific  treatment  than  it  has  ever  yet  re- 
ceived. It  is  generally  acknowledged,  even  by  our  own  writers,  that 
the  Teutonic  side  of  our  language  has  been  greatly  neglected.  Yet  the 
Teutonic  is  the  basis,  or  substantial  portion  of  our  language,  and  cannot 
be  neglected  without  great  detriment. 

A  thorough  scientific  treatment  of  the  English  language  would  require 
a  great  change  in  the  helps  now  employed  for  the  study  of  English,  and 
would  not  readily  find  admission  into  our  seats  of  learning. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  discussions  concerning  our  dictionaries,  the 
private  reading  of  Bopp's  Comparative  Grammar,  translated  by  East- 
wick,  1845-1850,  Donaldson's  New  Cratylu*  and  Varronianus,  which 
have  just  come  to  new  editions,  Trench's  various  works,  1853-1859, 
Rev.  B.  W.  Dwight's  Modern  Philology,  1859,  G.  P.  Marsh's  Lectures  on 
English  Philology,  1860,  and  similar  works,  are  preparing  the  way  for 
a  more  enlightened  view  of  the  structure  of  the  English  language. 

The  same  object  may  also  be  promoted  by  judicious  monographs,  on 
special  topics  of  grammar,  adapted  to  the  recitation  room,  which  should 
introduce  some  of  the  results  of  modern  philology,  and  at  the  same  time 
silently  correct  the  careless  statements  of  our  common  grammars. 

Of  this  nature  is  the  present  work.  The  author  has  taken  a  section 
of  English  grammar,  which  is  almost  entirely  neglected  in  the  recitation 
room,  has  expanded  it,  and  endeavored  to  spread  it  out  in  the  light 


IV  PREFACE. 

of  modem  science,  and  thus  gradually  introduce  the  student  into  a  new 
field. 

It  remains  to  state  briefly  the  peculiar  features  of  the  work. 

This  treatise  has  respect  only  to  the  Teutonic  portion  of  our  language. 
Of  course,  it  is  based  on  a  fundamental  distinction  between  the  Teutonic 
portion  of  our  language  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Latin  and  Greek  on 
the  other.  This  distinction,  which  affects  almost  every  department  of 
the  grammar,  is  lost  sight  of  in  our  most  popular  helps,  and  very  inade- 
quately exhibted  in  our  best  dictionaries. 

This  treatise  distinguishes  between  pronominal  elements,  which  are 
mere  indigitations,  and  verbal  roots,  which  have  a  logical  significancy. 
The  neglect  of  this  distinction  has  produced  disastrous  effects  in 
etymology. 

It  investigates  the  nature  of  roots  and  stem-words,  and  the  formation 
of  words  by  internal  inflection,  or  mere  transformation  of  vowel-sound. 
In  this,  the  author  has  followed  the  most  distinguished  writers  on  Ger- 
man, a  language  very  kindred  to  our  own. 

It  has  an  essay  on  Reduplicate  forms,  to  say  the  least,  a  curious  topic. 

It  treats  also  of  the  Teutonic  prefixes,  which  are  going  fast  into 
desuetude,  and  exhibits  them  before  the  eye  in  their  evanescent  state. 
This  is  interesting  to  the  observer  of  linguistic  phenomena. 

This  treatise  treats  of  the  Teutonic  suffixes  in  English  which  are  so 
imperfectly  understood. 

The  composition  of  words  in  English,  although  much  less  prominent 
than  in  German  or  Greek,  presents  some  interesting  results. 

In  the  Appendix  is  a  full  table  of  English  correlatives,  and  a  sum- 
mary statement  of  the  place  which  the  English  holds  among  the  Indo- 
European  languages,  and  also  of  the  relation  which  the  Indo-European 
have  to  the  other  languages  of  the  globe. 

The  author  of  this  little  volume  is  willing  to  believe,  that  a  teacher 
moderately  versed  in  English  etymology,  may,  by  distributing  the  main 
portion  of  the  work  into  suitable  lessons,  and  himself  reading  the  corres- 


PREFACE.  V 

ponding  portions  of  the  Appendix,  render  his  instructions  both  inter- 
esting and  useful  to  his  pupil. 

The  specimen  of  a  Vocabulary  is  a  mere  temporary  experiment  in  the 
way  of  an  Etymologicon  Anglicanum. 

But  the  preliminary  remarks  to  the  Vocabulary  contain,  it  is  thought 
matter  very  important  to  the  young  student,  for  example,  an  exhibition 
of  the  twelve  classes  or  conjugations  of  strongly  inflected  verbs, 
Grimm's  law  of  consonant  changes,  and  the  precession  of  vowel-sound  in 
the  development  of  the  Indo-European  languages.  These  topics, 
although  discussed  abundantly  in  more  learned  works,  have  not  as  yet 
been  introduced  into  the  school-room. 

With  many  apologies  for  the  imperfection  of  his  work,  the  author  will 
wait  with  patience  for  the  judgment  of  the  community  on  the  subject. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

1 .  Preliminary  Remarks, 1 

2.  Distinction  of  Pronominal  Elements  and  Verbal  Roots,  ....  2 

3.  Pronominal  Elements,   2 

4.  Verbal  Roots, 4 

5.  List  of  Teutonic  Verbal  Roots  in  English,  6 

I.  Verbal  Roots  with  Strong  Inflection,   6 

II.  Verbal  Roots  not  strongly  Inflected, 8 

6.  The  Formation  of  Words  generally,    8 

7.  Transformation  of  Vowel-sound, 9 

8.  Stem  Adjectives, 10 

9.  Stem  Substantives,   11 

10.  Other  Stem- Words, 14 

I.  Stem-nouns  with  Strengthened  Final  Consonant, 14 

II.  Stem  Adverbs  with  Loss  of  Suffix, 14 

III  Derivative  Stem-verbs, 15 

IV.  Reduplicate  Forms,   16 

11.  Teutonic  Primary  Derivatives, 16 

12.  Primary  Derivative  Verbs, 17 

13.  Primary  Derivative  Adjectives,  18 

14.  Primary  Derivative  Adverbs, 22 

15.  Primary  Derivative  Concrete  Substantives,  23 

16.  Primary  Derivative  Abstract  Substantives, 27 

Interchange  of  the  Forms  of  Abstract  Nouns, 80 

17.  Teutonic  Secondary  Derivatives, 31 

18.  Teutonic  Tertiary  Derivatives, 38 

I.  Substantive  Tertiary  Derivatives, 33 

II.  Adverbial  Tertiary  Derivatives, 33 

19.  Formation  of  Teutonic  Words  in  English  by  Prefixes, 34 

Teutonic  Words  in  English  formed  by  Prefixes, 35 

20.  Teutonic  Words  with  both  Prefixes  and  Suffixes, 38 

21.  The  Formation  of  Compound  Words, 88 

22.  Teutonic  Compound  Words  in  English, 41 

I.  Imperfect  Composition, 41 

II.  Perfect  Composition, 41 

III.  Inverted  Composition, 43 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

23.  Compounds  and  Derivatives  from  Compounds,    44 

24.  Derivatives  from  Pronominal  Elements,   44 

25.  Compounds  from  Pronominal  Elements 45 

26.  Words  of  Uncertain  Origin, 46 

27.  Teutonic  Double  Forms  in  English, 46 

28.  Disguised  Teutonic  Derivatives  and  Compounds, 47 

APPENDIX. 

A.  Relation  of  the  Teutonic  Portion  of  the  English  Language  to 

other  Languages, 49 

B.  Adverbs  with  Loss  of  Suffix, 55 

G.    Reduplicate  Forms  in  English, 57 

D.  The  English  Adjective  Suffix  en, 62 

E.  The  English  Adjective  Suffix  some,   63 

F.  On  the  Adverbial  Genitives  In  s  and  st, 65 

G.  The  English  Suffix  er, 72 

H.    The  Nominal  Suffix  ster, 74 

I.     The  Nominal  Suffix  ard, 76 

J.     The  Nominal  Suffix  kin, ; 77 

K.    The  Nominal  Suffix  ling, 78 

L.    The  English  Form  in  ing, 80 

M.    Additional  Remarks  on  Abstract  Substantives  in  ness, 81 

N.    Abstract  Substantives  in  dom,   82 

0.    Abstract  Substantives  in  hood  or  head,   83 

P.    Abstract  Substantives  in  ship  or  scape, 84 

Q.    Abstract  Substantives  in  th  or  t  from  Verbs, 85 

R.    Abstract  Substantives  in  th  or  t  from  Adjectives, 86 

S.    The  Prefix  be  or  by, 87 

T.    The  Prefix/or,   89 

U.    The  English  Prefix  a, 90 

V.    The  Prefix  mis,   94 

W.  Pronominal  Elements, 96 

X.    Table  of  English  Correlatives, 96 

Y.    Analysis  of  English  Interrogative^, 100 

Z.    Etymological  Analysis  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  English,. .....  105 

SPECIMEN  OF  A  VOCABULARY  OF  TEUTONIC  ROOTS  AND  STEM-WORDS 
IN  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

Preliminary  Remarks,. 110 

Teutonic  Roots  and  Stem-Words, 121 


FORMATION  OF  TEUTONIC  WORDS  IN  ENGLISH. 


1.  PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

Language,  or  continuous  discourse,  consists  of  propositions, 
and  propositions,  as  enunciated  or  written,  consist  of  words. 
Words,  therefore,  are  the  constituent  parts  of  language. 

Words  which  are  spoken  by  a  simultaneous  motion  of  the 
organs  of  speech,  or  by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice,  are  called 
monosyllables,  or  words  of  one  syllable.  Other  words  are  dis- 
syllables, trisyllables,  polysyllables. 

Besides  syllables  which  have  the  full  tone  or  accent,  as  pri- 
vateer', those  which  have  a  half  accent,  as  jwi'vateer,  and  those 
which  have  the  ordinary  tone,  as  a  in  privateer ;  there  are  some 
syllables,  made  up  of  liquids,  which  are  slurred  over,  or  only 
half  pronounced,  as  il  in  evil,  om  in  besom,  en  in  even,  and  er 
in  meager.  The  noticing  of  such  syllables  is  important  in  ety- 
mology. 

A  word  is  a  sign  or  symbol  either  of  a  definite  conception, 
as  of  an  activity  or  substance,  or  of  some  relation  of  such  con- 
ception. The  former  is  called  a  notional  word,  the  latter  a 
form-word.  See  Philol.  Stud.  Art.  XIII. 

Interjections,  or  exclamations,  are  no  proper  words.  They 
are  merely  instinctive  cries,  expressive  of  the  feelings.  No- 
tional words,  however,  may  be  formed  from  them  ;  as,  to  pish, 
from  pish;  to  ache,  from  ah;  the  noun  woe,  from  interjection 
woe. 

Imitations  of  natural  sounds,  whether  of  animals  or  of  in- 
animate objects,  as  mew,  peep,  quack,  crash,  are  merely  a  child- 
ish sport.  They  have  no  connection  with  language,  as  a  ra- 
tional or  intellectual  process.  But  some  of  these  sounds  have 
been  formed  into  verbs  ;  as,  to  mew,  to  peep,  to  crash.  Others 
into  nouns ;  as,  a  quack,  a  cuckoo.  But  these  words  are  quite 
limited  in  their  use,  and  do  not  affect  the  substance  of  the 
language. 

1 


2  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

Rational  or  intellectual  language  begins  with  the  production 
of  the  proper  word. 

2.  DISTINCTION  OF  PRONOMINAL  ELEMENTS  AND  VERBAL  ROOTS. 

The  words  of  a  language  are  not  insulated  from  each  other ; 
but  exist  in  groups  or  families,  the  members  of  which  are  con- 
nected or  related.  Thus  that,  the,  thence,  there,  thither,  then, 
thus,  though,  they,  are  united  by  the  common  element  th ;  and 
to  bind,  band,  bond,  binder,  binding,  bundle,  bondman,  hat-band, 
are  associated  by  the  common  idea  to  bind. 

As  there  are  two  kinds  of  words,  notional  ivords  and  form- 
words,  so  there  are  two  kinds  of  origin  or  sources  for  them,  viz. 
verbal  roots,  expressing  full  ideas,  from  which  verbs,  adjectives, 
and  nouns,  are  derived,  and  pronominal  elements,  expressing 
relations  of  place,  from  which  form-words  are  derived. 

But  some  form-words  are  derived  from  notional  words ;  as, 
while,  conj.  from  while,  noun,  time ;  both,  conj.  from  the  nu- 
meral adjective  both;  same,  pron.  from  same,  adj.  like;  not, 
compounded  of  ne  and  aught ;  comp.  prepositions  of  a  later 
formation,  Philol.  Stud.  p.  80,  also  conjunctions  of  a  later 
formation,  Philol.  Stud.  p.  154. 

So  also  some  notional  words  are  derived  from  form-words ; 
as,  to  thou  a  person,  from  the  pronoun  thou  ;  egotism  from  the 
Latin  pronoun  ego,  I. 

We  proceed  to  consider  the  pronominal  elements  first,  as 
their  number  is  comparatively  small. 

3.  PRONOMINAL  ELEMENTS. 

If  we  take  a  general  etymological  survey  of  pronouns  and 
pronominal  words,  they  will  be  found  to  arrange  themselves, 
not  under  verbal  roots,  like  other  parts  of  speech,  but  under 
certain  elementary  sounds  or  syllables. 

1.  Ic,  the  element  of  the  first  person  singular  subject,  appears 
now  only  in  the  mutilated  form  /.     Compare  Anglo  Saxon  ic, 
Old  English  ic. 

2.  M,  the  element  of  the  first  person  singular  object,  appears 
in  me,  my,  mine. 

3.  U,  the  element  of  the  first  person  plural,  appears  in  we, 
our,  ours,  us. 

4.  Th,  the  element  of  the  second  person  singular,  interme- 
diate between  Latin  t  and  German  d,  appears  in  thou,  thy, 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH   WORDS.  3 

thine,  thee.     Perhaps  radically  connected  with  th,  the  demon- 
strative element  mentioned  below. 

5.  Y,  the  element  of  the  second  person  plural,  appears  in 
ye.  your,  yours,  you. 

6.  H,  the  element  of  the  third  person  and  of  the  nearer  de- 
monstrative, appears  in  he,  his,  him,  her  (genitive  and  accusa- 
tive,) it  (Anglo-Saxon  hit,)  its,  hence,  here,  hither. 

7.  Th,  the  element  of  the  more  remote  demonstrative,  ap- 
pears in  that,  those,  this,  these,  the,  thilk,  thence,  there,  thither, 
then,  thus,  though,  they,  their,  theirs,  them.     But  this  and  these 
have  been  transferred  to  the  nearer  demonstratives,  and  they, 
their,  theirs,  and  them,  are  used  as  pronouns  of  the  third  person. 

8.  S,  another  form  of  the  remoter  demonstrative  element, 
appears  in  she,  so,  some,  also,  as.  such. 

9.  Wh,  the  interrogative  element,  appears  in  who,  what, 
whose,  ivhom,  which,  whether,  whence,  where,  whither,  when,  how, 
why.     All  these  words,  excepting  whether,  are  also  employed 
as  relatives. 

10.  N,  the  element  of  negation,  not  exactly  a  pronominal 
element,  but  a  sort  of  adverb  of  modality,  (see  Philol.  Stud.  p. 
84,  177,)  appears  in  nay,  naught,  none,  no,  neither,  not,  never, 
nor. 

The  derivatives  and  compounds  of  these  elements  are  very 
numerous. 

REMARKS. 

1.  There  are  sometimes  different  elements  to  the  same  person, 
to  distinguish  the  plural  from  the  singular,  and  the  object  from 
the  subject.     Hence  there  are  six  elements  for  the  three  per- 
sonal pronouns. 

2.  The  originators  of  language  seem  to  have  felt  the  broad 
distinction  between  the  plural  and  the  singular  in  the  two  first 
persons,  and  between  the  object  and  the  subject  in  the  first  per- 
son, and  to  have  treated  these  inflectionary  processes  as  the 
formation  of  new  words. 

3.  The  possessive  pronouns  are  radically  connected  with  the 
personal  pronouns,  and  are  to  be  referred  to  the  same  elements. 

4.  The  element  h  is  a  demonstrative  element,  as  well  as  the 
element  of  the  third  person. 

5.  The  demonstrative,  interrogative,  and  negative  elements, 
form  together  a  beautiful  table  of  correlatives,  as  will  be  exhib- 
ited hereafter. 


4  FORMATION  OF  ENGLISH  WORDS. 

4.  VERBAL  ROOTS. 

1.  Verbal  roots  are  essentially  different  from  the  pronominal 
elements  which  we  have  been  just  considering.     They  are  also 
vastly  more  important,  as  they  pervade  the  whole  language, 
and  give  to  it  its  character. 

2.  With  the  exception  of  pronouns  and  pronominal  words, 
words  in  English,  as  well  as  in  most  other  languages,  are,  as 
linguistical  signs  of  ideas,  composed  of  two  parts,  viz.,  the  root 
and  the  modifying  element,  which  is  attached  to  the  root  and 
gives  it  its  form. 

3.  It  is  obviously  important  for  every  one  who  would  master 
the  whole  vocabulary  of  any  language,  or  would  possess  a  full 
and   thorough  knowledge  of  the  words  which  he  employs,  to 
have  a  clear  perception  of  the  root  whence  a  word  is  derived, 
and  of  the  force  of  the  various  modifications  by  which  it  has 
been  affected.     What  is  intended  by  calling  one  animal  a  sloth, 
another  a  hare,  another  a  ivolf,  another  a  crab,  is  first  fully  un- 
derstood and  appreciated  when  we  are  able  to  trace  back  these 
words  to  their  several  roots,  viz.,  English  slow  ;  Sanskrit  ococ,  to 
spring;    Gothic  vilvan,  to  seize;  Anglo-Sax,  creopan,  to  creep. 
Without  such  knowledge  language  is  merely  a  collection  of 
proper  names,  or  an  assemblage  of  technical  expressions,  the 
application  of  which  is  to  be  learned  by  dint  of  memory,  or 
like  foreign  words,  whose  meaning  we  may  understand,  but  not 
see  into. 

4.  Although  instinct,  without  direct  instruction,  by  leading  us 
to  consider  words  in  group.*,  may  avail  much  in  the  acquire- 
ment of  this  kind  of  knowledge,  yet  it  would  be  strange  if 
wisely-directed  study  could  not  aid  the  mind  and  increase  its 
powers  and  capabilities. 

5.  A  root,  taken  in  its  strictest  sense,  is  a  significant  element, 
from  which  words,  as  forms  of  thought  and  parts  of  speech, 
are  derived.     It  is  not  itself  a  word,  but  that  which  lies  at  the 
foundation  of  a  whole  family  of  words.     The  root  has  signifi- 
cation, but  not  a  definite  signification,  in  the  system  of  our 
ideas  or  in  the  system  of  language.     It  does  not  express  an 
idea  which  can  form  a  component  part  of  language,  but  only 
the  intuition  or  appearance  which  is  common  to  the  noun  or 
idea  and  the  verb  or  judgment,  and  wants  the  modification 
which  makes  it  a  noun  or  verb.     It  is  no  part  of  ordinary 
speech. 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS.  5 

6.  The  root,  as  described  above,  is  something  below  the  sur- 
face, but  in  common  parlance  the  name  is  extended  to  words 
derived  immediately  from  the  root,  which  are,  as  it  were,  the 
first  sections  of  the  trunk  or  stem  which  appear  above  the 
ground.     It  is  convenient  to  give  the  root  such   a  vowel  or 
enunciation  as  it  assumes  in  its  first  birth  or  coming  into  exist- 
ence.    Thus  bind   (or  perhaps  band)  may  be  considered  the 
root  of  band,  bind,  bond,  bundle,  <fcc. 

7.  Our  Teutonic  roots,  as  well  as  our  Latin  and  Greek  roots, 
have  the  general  character  of  the  Indo-European  roots. 

As  to  their  meaning,  they  denote  activities  rather  than  sub- 
stances, and  physical  ideas  rather  than  intellectual  or  moral. 

As  to  their  form,  they  are  monosyllabic;  composed  of  sim- 
ple rather  than  double  consonants,  of  short  vowels  rather  than 
long  vowels  or  diphthongs,  and  of  primary  rather  than  second- 
ary vowels. 

But  we  are  concerned  here  only  with  Teutonic  roots,  or  such 
roots  as  are  found  in  the  Teutonic  portion  of  our  language. 

8.  The  proper  root  is  to  be  sought  for,  not  in  the  modern 
tongue,  but  in  the  original  Indo-European  language.  The  root  of 
an  English  word  is  to  be  sought  for  in  Anglo-Saxon,  as  an  older 
form  of  English ;  then   in  Meso-Gothic,   as  an  older  form  of 
Anglo-Saxon  ;  then  in  what  is  common  to  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and 
Latin,   as  exhibiting  the  still  older  language.     It  is  only  by 
way  of  accommodation,  that  we  speak,  as  in  this  treatise,  of  an 
English,  Latin,  or  Greek  root. 

In  English,  owing  to  the  disintegrated  state  of  our  language, 
or  to  the  loss  of  inflections,  our  Teutonic  roots  are  much  moro 
evident  than  our  Latin  and  Greek,  and  exhibit  themselves  in 
their  naked  form  more  fully  than  in  other  Teutonic  languages. 

Several  peculiarities  of  English  roots  may  here  be  noticed. 

1.  Some  English  roots  have  lost  their  physical  signification; 
as,  to  luit,  to  know,  denoting  an   intellectual  idea ;  comp.  Gr. 
\/i<y,  Lat.  \fvid,  to  see. 

2.  Some  English  roots  have  ceased  to  exist  in  their  naked 
form,  being  found  only  with  prefixes,  which  in  this  case  have 
lost  their  significancy ;  as,  *Jgin  in  begin,  comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
\fgyn;  \fnough  in  enough,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  noli ;  \fgain  in, 
again,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  gen. 

3.  Some  English  roots  have  now  two  syllables;  but  both 
syllables  have  been  evolved  out  of  one ;  as,  to  wallow,  comp.. 

1* 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

l.  volv  ;  to  follow,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  and  Germ.  */folg  ; 
to  swallow,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  ^swelg. 

4.  Some  English  roots  have  an  epenthetic  n\  as,  to  think, 
comp.  thought ;  to  blink,  comp.  black  and  bleak. 

5.  Some  English  roots  have  long  vowels  or  diphthongs  in- 
stead  of  short  vowels ;  to  bite,   to  chide,  to  smite ;  to  bear,  to 
break. 

6.  The  English  roots   to  buy,   (comp.  Anglo- Sax.  bycgan  ;) 
to  dry,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  drigan  ;)   to  fly,   (comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
fleogan  ;)   to  lie,  to  recline,   (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  licgan  ;)  to  lie, 
to  tell  a  falsehood,   (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  leoyan;)   may,   (comp. 
Anglo-Sax,  magan  ;)  to  say,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  sec.gan  ;)  to  slay, 
(cornp.  Germ,  schlagen  ;)  have  lost  a  final  consonant. 

5.  LIST  OF  TEUTONIC  VERBAL  BOOTS  IN  ENGLISH. 

It  happens  that  in  English,  as  well  as  in  the  other  Teutonic 
dialects,  there  is  a  class  of  verbs  distinguished  from  the  rest  by 
the  strong  or  internal  inflection.  These  all  grammarians  ac- 
knowledge to  be  primitive  or  radical  verbs.  We  shall  consider 
this  class  first. 

I.    Verbal  Roots  with  Strong  Inflection. 

1.  Bake;  2.  be;  3.  bear;  4.  beat;  5.  bid,  (to  ask;)  6.  bid, 
(to  command;)  7. /\/bide  in  abide;  8.  bind;  9.  bite;  10.  blow; 
11.  break;  12.  bring;  13.  burst;  14.  buy;  15.  can;  16.  catch  ; 
17.  chaw  or  chew;  18.  chide;  19.  choose;  20.  cleave,  (to  di- 
vide;) 21.  cleave,  (to  adhere;)  22.  climb;  23.  cling;  24.  come; 
25.  crow;  26.  delve ;  27.  dig;  28.  do;  29.  draw;  30.  drink; 
31.  drive;  32.  dare;  33.  eat;  34.  fall ;  35  fetch  ;  36  fight ; 
37.  find;  38.  fling;  39.  flow ;  40.  fly  ;  41.  freeze;  42.  freight; 
43.  get;  44.  gin,  in  fogin  ;  45.  give;  46.  go;  47.  grave; 
48.  grind;  49.  grow;  50.  hang;  51.  heave;  52.  help;  53.  hew; 
54.  hide;  55.  \/hight,  in  6ehight  an  obsolete  verb;  56. 
hold;  57.  know;  58.  lade;  59.  leap;  60.  lie,  (to  recline;) 
61.  may;  62.  melt;  63.  mow;  64.  must;  65.  ought;  66.  pitch; 
67.  \/queath  in  bequeath,  comp.  quoth  ;  68.  reach  ;  69.  ride ; 
70.  ring;  71.  rise;  72.  rive;  73.  rot;  74.  run ;  75.  \Aake  in 
/brsake;  76.  saw;  77.  see;  78.  seek  or  \/seecn  m  beseech  ; 
79.  seethe;  80.  sell;  81.  shake;  82.  shall;  83.  shape;  84.  shave; 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS.  7 

85.  shear;  86.  shine ;  87.  shoot ;  88.  shew  or  show ;  89.  shrink; 
90.  sing;  91.  sink;  92.  sit;  93.  slay;  94.  slide ;  95.  sling; 
96.  slink;  97.  smite;  98.  snow;  99.  sow;  100.  speak;  101.  spin; 
102.  spit;  103.  spring;  104.  stand;  105.  stave;  106.  steal ; 
107.  stick;  108.  sting;  109.  stink;  110.  strew  or  strow;  111. 
stride;  112.  strike;  113.  string;  114.  strive;  115.  swear; 
116.  swell;  117.  swim;  118.  swing;  119.  take;  120.  teach  ; 
121.  tear;  122.  tell;  123.  think ;  124.  thrive;  125.  throw  ; 
126.  tread;  127.  wake;  128.  wash;  129.  wax;  130.  wear ; 
131.  weave;  132.  will;  133.  win;  134.  wind  ;  135.  wit,  a  de- 
fective verb;  136.  work;  137.  wring;  138.  write. 
In  the  above  list  are  included 

1.  All  strongly  inflected  verbs  of  the  twelve  conjugations, 
as  classified  by  Schmitthenner.     See  English  Conjugation  in 
Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education  for  March,  1857. 

2.  A  few  verbs  omitted  in  the  list  just  referred  to  ;   viz.  beat, 
burst,  grave,  lade,  rive,  shoot. 

3.  Seven  verbs  of  irregular  or  uncertain  strong  conjugation ; 
viz.  be,  chaw  or  chew,  dare,  do,  go,  rot,  saw. 

4.  The  thirteen  verbs  of  the  mixed  conjugation,   which  of 
course  have  the  strong  inflection  ;  viz.  bring,  buy,  catch,  fetch, 
may,  pitch,  reach,  seek  or  \Sseech  in  beseech,  sell,   teach,   tell, 
think,  work. 

5.  Also  five  preteritive  verbs,  which  all  follow  the  strong 
inflection,  either  in  their  first,  or  in  their  second  preterit-form  ; 
viz.  can,  shall,  will,  ought,  must. 

6.  Many  of  these  verbs  show  the  strong  inflection  only  in 
forms  now  obsolete ;  viz.  burst,  cleave,  (to  adhere,)  climb,  delve, 

fetch,  help,  leap,  melt,  pitch,  reach,  shoot,  snow. 

7.  To  this  list  might  have  been  added  many  verbs,  which 
were  once  strongly  inflected,  as  appears  from  the  kindred  dia- 
lects and  other  vestiges,  but  now  in  English  are  only  weakly 
inflected;  as,  1.  blink  ;  2.  bow  ;  3.  burn  ;  4.  creep  ;  5.  dread  ; 
6.  drip;    I.eke;    8.  flee;   9.  flog;    10.  fold ;    11.  glide;    12. 
gnaiv  ;   13.  greet;   15.  knead  ;    16.  laugh;    17.  lead;    IS.  let ; 
19.  lie,  (to  tell  a  falsehood;)  20.  lose;   21. nip;   22.  reek ;  23. 
rue;    24.  sleep ;    25.  smelt ;   26.  suck;    27.  sup;   28.  sweat ; 
29.  sweep;  30.  thatch;  31.  thrash  or  thresh;  32. 

tug;  3±.weep;  35.  weigh  ;  36.  writhe..,      ^£$4%? 


8  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

REMARKS. 

On  this  list  of  primitive  verbs,  I  observe, 

1.  That  they  are  short,  but  very  expressive  words,  every 
letter  or  shred  of  them  being  important. 

2.  That  they  are  the  sacred  remains  of  the  primitive  lan- 
guage, being  common  to  all  the  Teutonic  dialects. 

3.  That  they  are  that  portion  of  the  Teutonic  languages 
which  connects  this  family  with  the  other  Indo-European  fami- 
lies. 

4.  That  they  exhibit  the  original  internal  inflection,  which  is 
entirely  wanting  in  the  more  modern  portion  of  the  language. 

5.  That,  as  a  general  rule,  they  exhibit  physical  ideas,  or 
ideas  perceptible  to  the  external  senses. 

6.  That  they  contain  that  portion  of  our  language,  that  can- 
not be  learned  by  definition,  but  must  be  learned  by  habit  or 
usage. 

II.    Verbal  Roots  not  strongly  Inflected. 

1.  These  verbal  roots  include  many  verbs  hardly  conjugated 
at  all ;  as,  rid,  */ stead  in  bestead,  shed,  shred,  spread,  read, 
speed,  cast,  hit,  knit,  put,  dit,  split,  thrust,  wet,  whet,  meet,  bend, 
build,  rend,  send. 

2.  These  verbal  roots  include  many  verbs  which  are  weakly 
inflected ;  as,  deal,  dwell,  feel,  hate,  have,  hear,  keep,  kill,  leave, 
love,  make,  mean,  say,  spill,  sway,  wade. 

A  complete  list  of  these  verbs  belongs  only  to  an  Etymolog- 
icon  Anglicanum. 

6.   THE  FORMATION  OF  WORDS  GENERALLY, 

Notional  words,  as  we  have  seen,  are  derived  from  one  an- 
other. Thus  from  to  bind  comes  band,  bond,  binder,  binding  n. 
bandage,  bondage,  bundle ;  and  from  to  drink  comes  drink  n. 
drunk  adj.  drench  v.  drinker,  drinking  n.  drinkable,  drunkard^ 
drunkenness. 

Words  which  come  from  roots  are  called  derivative  words. 

This  derivation  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  inflec- 
tion, which  has  respect  to  the  accidental  changes  of  words  in 
continuous  discourse,  which  do  not  form  permanent  words. 

Derivative  words  are  either  stems,  formed  from  roots,  with 
or  without  a  change  of  vowel ,  as,  band,  bond  ;  drink  n.  drench 
v. /a//n.;  or  offshoots,  formed  from  roots  or  stems,  or  from 
other  oftshoots,  by  means  of  suffixes ;  as,  binder,  bundle ; 
drinker,  drunkard,  drunkenness. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

Notional  words  are  often  made  up  of  two  different  words, 
and  are  then  called  compound  words;  as,  bondman,  hat-band ; 
drink-money,  wine-drinker. 

Intermediate  between  derivation  and  composition  is  the  form- 
ation of  words  by  prefixes ;  as,  outbid,  uphold. 

The  doctrine  concerning  the  formation  of  words  from  roots 
is  one  of  the  deepest  and  most  difficult  in  grammar ;  yet  it  is 
indispensable  for  sound  criticism.  Many  phenomena  in  mod- 
ern languages  have  been  misunderstood  from  the  want  of  this 
knowledge. 

TABULAR    VIEW. 


Roots. 

Stems. 

Offshoots. 

Compounds. 

(  linn  Hm  Jin 

To  bind, 

band,  bond, 

binder,  bundle, 

\     UUU<.lIiJclII, 

(  hat-band. 

To  drink, 

drink  n,  drench, 

{  drinker,  drunk- 
(    ard,  drinkable, 

j  drink-money, 
(  wine-drinker. 

To  fall, 

fall  n.  fell, 

falling  n.  feller, 

pitfall. 

To  flee, 

flea, 

flight, 

fleabite. 

To  fly, 

fly  n. 

flight, 

j  fly-trap, 
(  catch-fly. 

To  shear, 

shire,  share, 

shearer,  shearing  n.  plowshare. 

To  sit, 

seat,  set  v. 

sitting,  setter, 

bone-set. 

To  sing, 

song, 

singer,  songster, 

sing-song. 

To  strike, 

streak,  stroke, 

striker,  striking, 

j  moon-struck, 
(  ring-streaked, 

7.  TRANSFORMATION  OF  VOWEL-SOUND. 

This  internal  inflection,  or  change  of  vowel  within  the  root 
itself,  is  called  by  the  German  grammarians  ablaut.  It  is  one 
of  the  oldest  formative  processes  in  language,  and  extends  to 
all  the  Teutonic  dialects.  In  some  of  them  it  is  subjected  to 
definite  rules. 

This  transformation  of  vowel -sound  is  not  a  mere  modifica- 
tion of  the  original  vowel,  but  a  removing  of  the  same,  and  the 
substitution  of  a  new  vowel,  as  if  to  form  another  word.  It  is 
a  proper  play  of  vowel.  It  is  employed  in  the  conjugation  of 
strong  verbs,  the  inflectionary  process  being  regarded  by  the 
originators  of  language  as  a  formation  of  new  words. 

In  English  the  ablaut  is  much  obscured  and  disguised  by  the 
phonetic  changes  which  have  followed  on  the  ablaut  itself,  so 
as  to  appear  almost  lawless ;  yet  it  cannot  be  entirely  neglected 
in  English,  without  injury  to  the  study  of  our  language. 


10  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

This  internal  inflection,  or  vowel  variation  of  the  root,  is  em- 
ployed indifferently  for  the  noun  of  the  agent  (nomen  agentis,) 
the  noun  of  the  action  (nomen  action**,)  the  passive  object,  and 
the  adjective,  whether  active  or  passive. 

8.  STEM  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  in  English  are  often  derived  from  verbs  of  Teu- 
tonic origin  by  internal  inflection  only,  i.  e.  by  a  change  of 
vowel  within  the  root  itself;  as, 

1.  Blank,  white,  from  to  blink,  primarily  to  shine.     Comp. 
Germ,  blank,  shining,  from  blinken,  to  shine. 

2.  Black,  from  the  root  of  Germ,  blaken,  to  burn. 

3.  Bleak,  pale,  from  the  same  root  as  blank,  but  without 
the  epenthetic  n.    Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  blac,  pale,  from  blican,  to 
shine. 

4.  Blind,  from  to  blend,  to  mix.     Comp.  Anglo- Sax.  blind, 
from  blendan. 

5.  Cheap,  from  to  chop,  (Anglo-Sax,  ceapian),  to  barter. 

6.  Choice,  select,  from  to  choose. 

7.  Glad,  joyful,  (as  if  smooth,  serene,)  from  to  glide.   Comp. 
Germ,  glatt,  smooth,  from  gleiten,  to  glide. 

8.  Lief,  (obsolete),  beloved,  from  to  love.   Comp.  Goth,  liub-s, 
from  liuban ;  Anglo-Sax,  leof,  from  lufian ;  Germ,  lieb,  from 
lieben. 

9.  Live,  having  life,  from  to  live. 

10.  Loose,  from   to  lose.      Comp.  Goth,  laus,  loose,  from 
liusan,  to  lose. 

11.  Loud,  from  an  obsolete  verbal  root,  (whence  lute,}  signi- 
fying to  sound.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  hlud,  loud,  from  hlydan, 
to  sound,  and  Germ,  laut,  loud,  from  lauten,  to  sound. 

12.  Low,  from   to  lie.     Comp.  Germ,  leg,  low,  from  liegen, 
to  lie. 

13.  Strong,  from  the  root  of  Lat.  stringo,  to  bind. 

14.  Thick,  (Germ,  dick,)  from  the  root  of  Germ,  deihen,  to 
grow. 

15.  Thin,  (Germ,  dunn,)  from  the  root  of  Germ  dehnen,  to 
extend. 

16.  True,  from  to  trow  (obsolete).     Comp.  Germ,  treu,  from 
trauen  ;  Anglo-Sax,  treow,  from  treowian. 

17.  Wrong,  from  to  wring,  to  twist. 

18.  Brown,  from   to  burn.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  brun,  from 
by  man  ;  and  Germ,  braun,  from  brennen,  to  burn. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS.  11 

19.  Dry,   (Anglo-Sax,  drig,)  from  the  root  of  Anglo-Sax. 
drigan,  to  dry  up. 

20.  Earn,  obsolete,  (whence  earnest,)  from  to  earn  or  yearn. 

21.  Fast,  firm,   (Anglo-Sax,  fast,  Germ,  fest,)  from   Goth. 
fastan,  to  keep. 

22.  Late,  from  to  let.    Comp.  Goth,  lat-sfrom  letan;  Anglo- 
Sax.  Icet  from  Icetan  ;  Germ,  lass  from  lassen. 

23.  Jf&pe,  from  to  reap.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  ripe  from  ripan. 

24.  Smooth,  from  to  smite.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  smethe  from 


.  —  Whether  the  change  of  vowel  in  these  adjectives  has 
arisen  more  from  play  of  vowel,  (Germ,  ablaut,)  or  from  modi- 
fication of  the  vowel-sound,  (Germ,  umlaut,)  it  is  difficult  to 
determine.  The  change  appears  to  us  lawless. 

There  are  also  very  many  stem-adjectives,  whose  root  is  now 
lost  ;  as,  white,  red,  small,  long,  young,  etc. 

9.  STEM  SUBSTANTIVES. 

Nouns  in  English  are  often  derived  from  verbs  of  Teutonic 
origin  by  internal  inflection  only,  i.  e.  by  a  change  of  vowel 
within  the  root  itself;  as 

1.  Band,  (whence  bandage,)  from  to  bind.     Comp.  Anglo- 
Sax.  bcend  from  bindan. 

2.  Bat,  a  club,  from  to  beat.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  bat  from 
beatan. 

3.  Bate,  contention,  from  to  beat.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  bate 
from  beatan. 

4.  Bond,  (whence  bondage  and  bundle,)  from  to  bind.   Comp. 
Anglo-Sax,  bund  from  bindan. 

5.  Breach,  from  io  break.      Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  brice  from 
brecan. 

6.  Cake,  from   to  cook.     Comp.  Dutch  koek  from  kooken  ; 
Germ,  kuchen  from  kochen. 

7.  Dole,  a  share,  from  to  deal.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  doel  from 
dcelan. 

8.  Doom,  judgment,  from  to  deem.     Comp.  Anglo-  Sax.  dom 
from  deman. 

9.  Hand,  from  hend,  to  take,  in  forehend.     Comp.  Meso- 
Goth.  handus  from  hinthan. 

10.  Hound,  from  hend,  to  take  or  seize,  in  forehend.    Comp. 
Meso-Goth.  hund  from  hinthan. 


12  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

11.  Knife,  from  to  nip.     Comp.  Germ,  kneifhom  kneifen. 

12.  Load,   from    to   lade.      Comp.  Anglo-Sax,   hlad   from 
hladan. 

13.  Malt,  barley  prepared  for  brewing,  from  to  melt,  to  soak, 
or  soften.     Comp.  Germ,  malz  from  (scft)melzen. 

14.  Road,  from  to  ride.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  rad  from  ridan. 

1 5.  Sale,  from  to  sell.    Comp.  Anglo- Sax.  sal  from  syllan. 

16.  Share,  from   to  shear.      Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  scear  from 
sceran. 

1 7.  Shire,  a  division,  from  to  shear.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  scir 
from  sceran. 

18.  Shot,  from  to  shoot.   Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  scot  from  sceotan. 

19.  Smalt,  flint  and  potash  fused  together,  from  to  smelt. 
Comp.  Germ,  schmelz  from  schmelzen. 

20.  Song,  from  to  s^.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  song  or  sany, 
from  singen. 

21.  2We,  from  to  feZZ.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax.  toZe  from  tellan. 

22.  Wright,  a  workman,  from  to  wor&.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
wryhta  or  wyrhta,  from  wyrcan. 

23.  2tor,  from  to  6ear.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax.  JOT  from  6eran. 

24.  (7A?p,  from  to  c/iop,  to  cut. 

25.  6?a^),  from  to  ^a/>e. 

26.  Grave,  from   to  ^rrave.      Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  grceffrom 
grafan. 

27.  Groove,  from  to  ^rave. 

28.  Hinge,  from  to  Aan</. 

29.  #ay,  from   to  hew.      Comp.  Germ,  heu,  from  hauen, 
to  cut. 

30.  JToe,  from  to  taw.      Comp.  Germ,  haue,  from  hauen, 
to  cut. 

31.  Hoof,  from  to  heave. 

32.  J7z7£,  from  to  AoW.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax.  Mtf  from  healdan. 

33.  CW6,  from  to  creep. 

34.  Milt,  from  to 

35.  Shore,  from  to 

36.  Ship,  from  to 

37.  Seat,  from  to  s^. 

38.  Stroke,  from  to  strike. 

39.  Streak,  from  to 

40.  7WZ,  from  to 

41.  Woof,  from  to 

42.  Bead,  a  little  perforated  ball,  from  to  bid,  (to  ask,  pray). 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS.  13 

43.  Bed,  from  to  bid,  (to  lay  down,  command). 

44.  Damp,  from  the  root  of  Old  German  dimpfen,  to  smoke. 

45.  Deck,  from  the  root  of  Germ,  decken,  to  cover. 

46.  Glass,  from  the  root  of  Germ,  yleissen,  to  shine. 

47.  Gloss,  from  the  root  of  Germ,  gleissen,  to  shine. 

48.  Hen,  from  the  root  of  Old  Germ,  hanan,  to  sing. 

49.  Lamb,  from  the  root  of  Old  Germ,  limmen,  to  bleat. 

50.  Thatch,  from  Anglo-Sax,  theccan,  to  cover. 
61.  Throng,  from  Anglo-Sax,  thringan,  to  press. 

Note.  —  Whether  the  change  of  vowel  in  these  substantives 
has  arisen  more  from  play  of  vowel,  (Germ,  ablaut^)  or  from 
modification  of  the  vowel-sound,  (Germ,  umlaut,)  it  is  difficult 
to  determine.  The  change  is  apparently  lawless. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  stem-substantives,  which,  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge,  cannot  be  referred  to  verbal 
roots  ;  as,  1.  arm,  2.  brow,  3.  door,  4.  egg,  5.  eye,  6.  ewe,  l.foal, 
8.  gold,  9.  goom,  (in  bridegroom  for  bride^oow,)  10.  guest, 
11.  harm,  12.  heart,  13.  hemp,  14.  horn,  15.  house,  16.  tin,  (in 
ftnen,)  17.  loaf,  18.  marrow,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  mearg,  see  p.  6, 
supra,)  19.  knee,  20.  mead,  21.  rawe,  22.  need,  23.  m?s£,  24. 
night,  25.  nose,  26.  ovm,  27.  root.  28.  sun,  29.  tongue,  30. 


Most  of  these  stem-substantives  are  found  in  the  earlier  dia- 
lects with  analogous  forms  ;  which  fact  enables  us  to  illustrate 
some  principles  of  Grimm's  famous  law  of  consonant  changes. 

1.  The  English  aspirate  mutes,  /,  h  (for  kh,)   and  th,  have 
developed  themselves  from  the  tenues,  p,  k  or  c,  and  t  ;    as, 
Eng.  foal,  Lat.  pullus,   Gr.  nwkog  ;  Eng.  heart,  Lat.  cor,   (gen. 
cordis,)  Gr.  xugdla  ;    Eng.  tooth,  Lat.  dens,   (gen.  dentis,)  Gr. 
odovg,  (gen.  &?(Wo£.) 

2.  The  English  mediae,  b,  g,  and  c?,  have  developed  them- 
selves from  the  aspirates,  ph  or  /,  kh  or  A,  and  th  ;  as,  Eng. 
brow,  Greek,  txpgvg,  Sansk.  bhru  ;   Eng.  goom,  (in  bridegroom,) 
Lat.  homo  ;  Eng.  cfoor,  Gr.  #<'£«. 

3.  The  English  tenues,  p,  k  or  c,  and  t,  have  developed  them- 
selves from  the  mediae,  b,  g^  and  d  ;  as,  Eng.  hemp,  Lat.  am- 
ndbis,  Gr.  xfo*apt$  ;    Eng.  &nee,  Lat.  #mw,  Gr.  yo^v;    Eng. 
tfoo^A,  Lat.  cfews,  (gen.  dentis,)  Gr.  odotg,  (gen.  dMyxoj). 

Where  no  mutes  occur,  the  resemblance  is  often  more  close  ; 
as,  Eng.  lin,  (in  linen,)  Lat.  linum,  Gr.  AiVoy  ;  Eng.  nose,  Lat. 


14  FORMATION  OF  ENGLISH  WORDS. 

10.  OTHER  STEM-WORDS. 

The  subject  of  stem-words  is  not  exhausted.  We  have  to 
consider  here, 

1.  Stem-nouns  with  final  consonant  strengthened. 

2.  Stem-adverbs  with  loss  of  adverbial  suffix. 

3.  Derivative  stem- verbs. 

4.  Reduplicate  stems. 

I.  Stem-nouns,  with  Strengthened  Final  Consonant. 

The  formative  unaccented  syllables,  el,  em,  en,  and  er,  are 
often  attached  to  stem-words,  without  affecting  their  significa- 
tion. The  adjectives  are  taken  either  actively  or  passively;  and 
the  substantives  express  indifferently  the  agent,  action,  or  pas- 
sive object.  These  formative  syllables  should  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished from  syllables  used  as  significant  suffixes.  These 
words  often  suffer  contraction. 

Stem-adjectives  with  strengthened  final  consonant :  evil  or 
ill,  idle;  even,  fain,  (Anglo-Sax,  fcegen;)  Utter,  fair,  (Anglo- 
Sax,  fceyer,)  meager,  sour,  (Germ,  saucr.) 

Stem-substantives  with  strengthened  final  consonant :  fowl, 
( Anglo-Sax,  fugel,)  hail,  (Anglo-Sax.  hageL)  hill,  (Germ,  hugel,) 
nail,  (Anglo-Sax.  ncegel;)  besom  ;  garden,  (comp.  yard,)  wagon 
or  wain  ;  finger,  hammer,  hunger. 

Note  1. — Som»e  grammarians  hold  that  there  are  other  merely 
phonetic  additions  to  stems;  as,  m,  in  seam,  from  to  sow;  t,  in 
frost,  from  to  freeze ;  and  d,  in  mead  or  meadow,  from  to  mow. 
But  1  leave  this  point  undetermined. 

Note  2. — The  existence  of  these  merely  phonetic  additions  to 
stems  is  admitted  both  by  Heyse  and  Becker.  This  species  of 
word-formation  is  called  the  middle  form,  as  intermediate  be- 
tween stem-formation  and  proper  derivation. 

II.  Stem  Adverbs,  with  Loss  of  Suffix. 

1.  There  are  twenty-eight  stem  adverbs  in  English,  which 
have  the  same  form  as  the  adjectives  from  which  they  are 
derived  ;  viz.  1.  clean,  2.  deep,  3.  even,  4.  evil  or  ill,  5.  fain, 
6.  fast,  7.  good,  8.  hard,  9,  high,  10.  late.  11.  lief,  12.  like, 
13.  long,  14.  loud,  15.  low,  16.  new,  17  quick,  18.  rare,  (raw), 
19.  rath,  (comparative  rather,)  20.  right,  (perhaps  with  strength- 
ened final  consonant,)  21.  short,  (perhaps  with  strengthened 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH   WORDS.  15 

final  consonant,)  22.  slow,  23.  soft,  24.  sore,  25.  still,  26.  thick, 
27.  wide,  28.  wrong. 

This  list  belongs  to  the  class  of  stem  adjectives,  see  §  8.  supra. 
The  principle  also,  which  \ve  have  adopted,  determines  the  lexi- 
cographical order  of  these  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

2.  Of  this  whole  number  (28),  fourteen  have  lost  the  ad- 
verbial suffix  e,  which  distinguished  them  from  the  adjectives; 
as,  Anglo- Sax.  thic,  adjective,  and  thicce,  adverb  ;  Anglo  Sax. 
riht,  adjective,  and  rihte,  adverb.     So  clean,  evil  or  ill,  fast, 
hard,  high,   late,  long,  loud,  rath,  (comparative  rather,)  soft, 
sore,  wide. 

Of  this  whole  number  (28),  ten  are  found  in  Anglo-Saxon 
only  as  adjectives ;  viz.  deep,  fain,  good,  lief,  low,  new,  quick, 
short,  slow,  rare. 

Of  this  whole  number  (28),  two  have  the  same  form  in  Anglo- 
Saxon,  whether  used  as  adverbs  or  adjectives;  viz.  even,  still. 

Of  this  whole  number  (28),  two  are  not  found  in  Anglo- 
Saxon,  either  as  adjectives  or  adverbs  ;  viz.  loiv,  wrong. 

3.  Of  this  whole  number  (28),  thirteen  are  also  formed  with 
the  adverbial  suffix  in  the  same  sense ;  viz.  deep  and  deeply,  evil 
or  ill  and  evilly  or  illy,  high  and  highly,  load  and  loudly \  low 
and  lowly,  new  and  newly,  quick  and  quickly,  rare  and  rarely, 
slow  and  slowly,  sore  and  sorely,   thick  and  thickly,  wide  and 
widely,  wrong  and  wrongly. 

Of  this  whole  number  (28),  ten  are  found  with  the  adverbial 
suffix  ly,  but  used  with  discrimination  ;  viz.  clean  and  cleanly, 
even  and  evenly,  good  and  goodly,  hard  and  hardly,  late  and 
lately,  like  and  likely,  right  and  rightly,  sliort  and  shortly,  soft 
and  softly,  still  and  stilly.  These  furnish  occasion  for  nice 
synonymic  distinctions. 

Of  this  whole  number  (28),  five  have  never  adopted  the  ad- 
verbial suffix  ly ;  viz.  fain,  fast,  lief,  long,  rath.  The  adverb 
readily  is  formed  from  ready,  and  ready  presupposes  a  form 
readig,  com  p.  Mod.  Low  Germ,  redig. 

Note. — For  a  more  full  account  of  Adverbs  having  the  same 
form  as  adjectives,  see  Prof.  Fowler's  Eng.  Gram.  Ed.  n.  p.  362. 

III.    Derivative  Stem-verbs. 

These  are  formed  from  other  stem-words  or  roots  by  a  change 
of  vowel,  and  sometimes  of  a  consonant ;  and  have  a  causative 
signification ;  as, 

1.  To  bait,  from  to  bite.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  batan  from  bitan. 


16  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

2.  To  drench,  from    to  drink.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  drencan, 
from  drincan. 

3.  To  etch  from  to  eat.     Comp.  Germ,  dtzen  from  essen. 

4.  To  fell,  from  to  fall.     Comp.  Germ,  fallen  from  fallen. 

5.  To  lay,  from  to  lie.    Comp.  An^lo-Sax.  lecoan  from  licgan. 

6.  To  set,  from  to  sit.    Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  settan  from  sittan. 

7.  To  razse,  from  to  rise.    Comp.  Goth,  raisjan  from  reisan. 

8.  To  wend,  from  to  wmc?.    Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  wendan  from 


9.  To  bleed,  from  the  noun  blood.    Comp.  Anglo-  Sax.  bledan 
from  the  noun  blod. 

10.  To  breed,  from  the  noun  fcroodf.    Comp.  Germ,  bruten 
from  the  noun  brut. 

11.  To  feed,  from  the  noun  /ood.    Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  fedan 
from  /oG?a. 

12.  To  gild,  from  the  noun  #o&7.    Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  gildan 
from  the  noun  gold. 

These  causative  and  factitive  verbs  are  of  the  weak  conjuga- 
tion, while  their  primitives  are  of  the  strong. 

These  causative  verbs  are  found  also  in  the  kindred  Teutonic 
dialects,  where  their  formation  is  often  quite  regular. 

IV.   Reduplicate  Forms. 

These  are  formed  by  a  mere  repetition  of  the  root  or  stem 
itself;  as,  chit-chat,  ding-dong,  flim-flam,  knick-knack,  riff-raff, 
slip-slop,  sing-song,  snip-snap,  whim-wham,  zig-zag.  They  are 
most  of  them  substantives. 

These  reduplicate  forms  are  found  also  in  the  other  Teutonic 
dialects. 

For  an  extended  discussion  of  this  class  of  words,  see  Prof. 
Fowler's  Una.  Gram.  Ed.  n.  p.  390. 

11.   TEUTONIC  PRIMARY  DERIVATIVES. 

Primary  derivatives  are  those  which  are  derived  immediately 
from  the  root  or  stem  by  the  addition  of  a  single  significant 
suffix. 

Primary  derivatives  include 

1.  Derivative  verbs  in  en,  er,  and  le. 

2.  Derivative  adjectives  in  ed,  en,  ern,  ey,  ful,  ing,  ish,  less, 
ly,  some,  th,  ward,  and  y. 

3.  Derivative  adverbs  in  ly  and  s  or  $t, 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH   WORDS.  I 

4.  Derivative  concrete  substantives  in  er,  ster,  ard,  ie  or  y, 
kin,   liny,  and  ock. 

5.  Derivative   abstract   substantives   in  ing,  ness,  dom,  cry, 
hood  or  head,  ship  or  scape,  ric,  and  th  or  t. 

12.  PRIMARY  DERIVATIVE  VERBS. 

Derivative  verbs  are  formed  from  adjectives,  substantives,  and 
other  verbs,  by  means  of  the  suffixes,  en,  er,  and  le. 

I.  Derivative  Verbs  in  en. 

The  suffix  en,  originally  the  Teutonic  infinitive  termination, 
now  serves  in  English  to  form  verbs  from  adjectives  and  sub- 
stantives. 

1.  From  adjectives,  and  having  a  transitive  signification  ;  as, 
bolden,  deafen,  deepen,  fasten,  fatten,  flatten,  freshen,  gladden, 
harden,  redden,  roughen,  sicken^  slacken,  stiffen,  thicken,  weaken, 
whiten,  widen.     Also  having  an  intransitive  signification;  as, 
broaden,  deepen,  fatten,  flatten,  freshen,  gladden,  harden,  redden, 
roughen,  sicken,  slacken,  stiffen,  thicken,  whiten,  widen. 

2.  From  substantives;  as,  happen,  from  hap;  hearten,  from 
heart;  threaten,  from  threat. 

II.  Derivative  Verbs  in  er. 

The  suffix  er  serves  to  form  frequentative  verbs  from  other 
verbs ;  as,  blunder,  from  to  blend,  (as  if  to  confound  things ;) 
chaffer,  from  to  chap  ;  chaffer,  from  to  chat ;  clamber,  from  to 
climb  ;  flicker,  from  to  fly,  (Anglo-Sax,  fleagan  ;)  flitter  ov  flut- 
ter, from  to  flit  ;  gibber  or  jabber,  from  to-  gab  ;  glimmer,  from 
to  gleam  ;  linger,  from  to  long  ;  m.older,  from  to  mold  ;  slidder, 
from  to  slide  ;  swagger,  from  to  swag  or  sway,  (Anglo-Sax,  swe- 
gian  ;)  wander,  from  to.  wend* 

Note. — Many  verbs  of  this  class  we  are  unable  to  refer  to 
their  primitive  verbs,  either  because  such  primitives  have  gone 
out  of  use,  or  because  the  verbs  themselves  have  been  sub- 
jected to  great  phonetic  or  onomatopoetic  changes, 

III.  Derivative  Verbs  in  Ie* 

The  suffix  le  serves  to  form  diminutive  verbs,  in  a  physical 

or  moral  sense,   from    other  verbs;  us  bubble,   from  obsolete  to 

bub;  crackle,  from  to  crack  ;  cri  mple,  from  to  crimp  ;  crumble, 

from  to  crumb  ;  crinkle,  from  to  cringe  ;  dabble,  from  to  dah  ; 

2* 


18  FORMATION    Of   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

dazzle,  from  obsolete  to  daze  ;  draggle,  from  to  drag  ;  dribble, 
from  to  drip  or  drop ;  fondle,  from  to  fond;  gabble,  from  to 
gab  ;  grabble,  from  to  grab ;  grapple,  from  to  grab  or  gripe  ; 
grovel,  from  to  grope  ;  grubble,  from  to  grub  ;  gruntle,  from  to 
grunt ;  hobble,  from  to  hop ;  knobble,  from  to  knab  or  knap ; 
knapple,  from  to  knap  ;  knubble  or  nubble,  from  to  knub  ;  prat- 
tle, from  to  prate  ;  puzzle,  from  to  pose  ;  raffle,  from  to  raff ; 
ramble,  from  to  roam ;  ruffle,  from  to  ruff ;  scrabble,  from  to 
scrape ;  snuffle,  from  to  snuff ;  startle,  from  to  start ;  straddle, 
from  to  stride ;  straggle,  from  to  stray,  (Anglo-Sax,  stregan;) 
swaddle,  from  to  swathe  ;  tinkle,  from  to  tink ;  tingle,  from  to 
fr'n^;  twinkle,  from  to  twink ;  waddle,  from  to  wade ;  waggle, 
from  to  woj7  ;  wrangle,  from  to  wring  ;  wrestle,  from  to  wmJ ; 
writhle,  from  to  writhe. 

Note. — A  similar  remark  may  be  made  here,  as  on  Deriva- 
tive Verbs  in  er. 

13.  PRIMARY  DERIVATIVE  ADJECTIVES. 

Derivative  Adjectives  end  in  ed,  en,  ern,  ey,ful,  ing,  ish,  less, 
ly,  some,  th,  ward,  and  y. 

I.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  ed. 

This  termination  ed  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  past  participle 
in  the  weak  conjugation,  and  has  the  same  passive  signification. 
But  these  forms  differ  from  participles  in  not  denoting  time, 
and  in  being  formed  directly  from  nouns.  The  suffix  is  joined 
to  concrete  substantives,  and  to  some  abstract  substantives  used 
as  concretes. 

Example.     Wing-ed,  endued  or  furnished  with  wings. 

So  ribbed,  snouted,  tongued  ;  leafed;  gowned;  masted; 
skilled,  witted. 

This  suffix  is  found  in  Anglo-Saxon  ;  as,  gehyrned,  horned. 

And  an  analogous  form  in  Moeso-Gothic ;  as,  gavaurls, 
rooted. 

The  Latin  also  has  an  analogous  form  ;  as,  alatus,  winged ; 
moratus,  mannered. 

Note. — By  means  of  the.  full-faced  type,  introduced  above, 
we  may  distinguish,  in  printing,  the  root  or  stern,  the  formative 
suffix  or  prefix,  and  the  inflection,  in  the  same  word ;  as, 
last-ness-^,  for-give-ness-es,  riglit-eous-ness-es. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS.  19 

II.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  en. 

These  forms  constitute  hylonymic  adjectives,  or  adjectives 
expressing  the  material  out  of  which  anything  is  made.  The 
suffix  is  annexed  to  nouns  of  the  material. 

Example.     Gold-en,  made  of  gold. 

So  brazen,  (from  brass,)  earthen,  leaden;  ashen,  beechen, 
birchen,  boxen,  flaxen,  hempen,  linen,  (from  Anglo-Sax,  lin,  flax,) 
oaken,  wooden,  ye  wen;  oaten,  wheaten;  milken,  silken,  threaden, 
waxen,  woollen  ;  also  leathern. 

This  suffix  is  found  in  Anglo-Saxon ;  as,  gylden,  golden. 

This  suffix  is  found  also  in  Mceso-Gothic ;  as,  gulthein-s, 
golden. 

Also  in  German  :  as,  golden. 

This  suffix  in  the  same  form,  and  with  the  same  significancy, 
is  found  also  in  Greek  and  Latin ;  as,  Gr.  yriywos,  oaken ;  Lat 
faginus,  beechen. 

III.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  ern. 

These  forms  denote  the  points  of  the  compass. 

Example.     TVortli-ern,  relating  to  the  north. 

So  southern,  eastern,  western. 

In  the  kindred  dialects,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  northern,  suthern. 

IV.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  ey. 

The  suffix  ey  is  the  same  as  y,  being  used  after  words  end- 
ing in  y,  to  avoid  the  concurrence  of  double  y. 
Example.     Clay-ey,  wliey-ey. 

V.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  ful. 

This  suffix  is  of  common  occurrence,  and  of  very  clear  sig- 
nificancy in  English.  The  German  grammarians  treat  these 
forms  as  compounds  ;  but  this  is  not  desirable  in  English. 

Example.     Fear -ful,  full  of  fear. 

So  aivful,  blissful,  dreadful,  heedful,  needful,  skilful,  thought- 
ful, wrongful. 

VI.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  ing. 

The  termination  ing  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  present  active 
participle.  These  forms  are  properly  participles  which^have 
lost  their  verbal  or  participial  signification. 

Example.     I^ast-ing. 


20  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

So  binding,  striking,  wanting. 

In  the  kindred  dialects,  corup.  Germ,  liebend,  loving;  reitz- 
end,  charming. 

Comp.  also  Lat.fluens,  fluent. 

VII.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  ish. 

These  forms  constitute  diminutives. 

Example.     Wfait-isb,  somewhat  white. 

This  suffix  is  attached  (1.)  to  names  of  color,  where  it  re- 
tains its  diminutive  force ;  as,  blackish,  bluish,  greenish,  reddish ; 
(2.)  to  attributive  substantives,  where  it  retains  its  diminutive 
force  only  partially  ;  as,  roguish,  thievish,  childish,  girlish,  boy- 
ish ;  and  (3.)  to  proper  names,  forming  gentile  adjectives, 
where  its  diminutive  or  shirring  character  is  nearly  lost;  as, 
English,  Irish,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  with  form  more  obscured, 
French,  Welsh.  Dutch. 

In  the  kindred  dialects,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  cildisc,  childish ; 
Mo2so-Goth.  barnisk-s,  childish ;  Germ,  diebisch,  thievish. 

VIII.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  less. 

This  suffix  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  our  English  word 
loose,  as  is  evident  from  the  kindred  dialects.  It  is  of  common 
occurrence  and  of  clear  significancy. 

Example.  Care-l^ss,  free  from  care.  Comp.  the  compound 
toll-free,  free  from  toll. 

So  fearless,  guiltless,  harmless,  heartless,  heedless,  helpless, 
needless,  shameless. 

In  the  kindred  dialects,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  synleas,  sinless ; 
Moeso-Goth.  andilaus,  endless;  Germ,  endlos. 

IX.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  ly. 

The  suffix  ly  (—like?)  originally  an  adverbial  termination1,  w 
sometimes  used  to  form  adjectives  from  concrete  substantives 
and  from  adjectives ;  as,  manly,  ghostly,  godly  ;  daily,  weekly  ; 
goodly,  weekly. 

Note  — These  adjectives  are  used,  for  the  most  part,  attribu- 
tively, seldom  predicatively ;  as,  manly  conduct,  a  daily  publi- 
cat*o^  a  goodly  child. 

In  the  kindred  dialects,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  gastlic,  ghostly ; 
Moaso-Goth.  liubahik-s,  lovely ;  Germ,  mdnnlich,  manly. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS.  21 

X.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  some. 

This  suffix  is  probably  connected  with  the  English  adjective 
same,  and  is  found  united  with  substantives,  adjectives,  and 
verbs.  Joined  to  a  concrete  noun  or  an  adjective,  it  denotes 
likeness  or  approximation.  Joined  to  verbs  and  abstract  nouns, 
it  denotes  tendency  or  inclination  to  the  given  action  or  thing. 

Example.     Oame-some,  inclined  to  game  or  sport. 

So  galsome,  mettlesome;  blithesome,  darksome,  fulsome; 
handsome,  irksome,  tiresome. 

For  a  fuller  account  of  this  perplexing  suffix,  see  Appendix. 

XL  Derivative  Adjectives  in  th. 

These  form  ordinal  numeral  adjectives  from  the  cardinal 
numbers. 

Example.     Four-th,  the  ordinal  of  four. 

So  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  tenth,  third,  (with  d  on  account  of 
initial  th.) 

XII.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  ward. 

These  form  adjectives  denoting  situation  or  direction. 

Example.     lu-ward,  toward  the  interior. 

So  outward  ;  upward,  downward  ;  fonoard,  backward  ;  mid- 
ward. 

In  the  kindred  dialects,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  hamweard,  home- 
ward ;  Moeso-Goth.  vithravairth-s,  over  against ;  Germ,  inwar- 
tig,  inward. 

XIII.  Derivative  Adjectives  in  y. 

Adjectives  formed  by  this  suffix  indicate  the  possession  of 
the  attribute  denoted  by  the  stem,  and  express  that  attribute 
objectively  and  outwardly;  as,  long,  l possessing  inherent 
length,'  lengthy,  '  having  length  considered  objectively.' 

Example.     Wortii-y,  having  worth. 

This  suffix  is  attached  to  abstract  nouns ;  as,  angry,  frosty, 
lengthy,  mighty,  worthy ;  to  concrete  nouns;  as,  bushy,  sunny, 
woody ;  and  to  material  nouns;  as,  airy,  bloody,  dusty,  earthy, 
fiery,  hairy,  muddy,  sandy,  watery  ;  also  any. 

In  German  this  suffix  is  added  also  to  verbs ;  as,  beissig,  bit- 
ing, from  beissen,  to  bite. 

In  Anglo-Saxon,  the  form  of  this  suffix  is  ig ;  as,  mihtig, 
mighty ;  cenig,  any. 


22  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

In  Mceso-Gothic,  the  form  of  this  suffix  is  ag,  eig,  ah  j  as, 
modag-s,  (moody,)  angry;  gredag-s,  (greedy,)  hungry;  maht- 
eig-s,  mighty ;  vaurdah-s,  (wordy.)  literal. 

The  corresponding  Latin  and  Greek  suffix  is  icus,  and  tx6?; 
as,  Lat.  hosticus,  hostile ;  Gr.  votuixog,  pertaining  to  the  law. 

14.   PRIMARY  DERIVATIVE  ADVERBS. 
Derivative  Adverbs  end  in  ly  and  5  or  st. 
I.  Derivative  Adverbs  in  ly. 

The  suffix  ly  (=like)  forms  notional  adverbs  of  manner  from 
notional  adjectives  of  quality  ;  as,  a  bad  action,  he  acts  badly  ; 
a  free  gift,  he  gives  freely. 

Example.     Bad-ly,  in  a  bad  manner. 

So  strongly,  weakly  ;  fatly,  leanly  ;  swiftly,  slowly  ;  hardly, 
softly;  roughly,  smoothly ;  hotly,  coldly;  warmly,  coolly ; 
sweetly,  bitterly ;  highly,  lowly ;  thickly,  thinly ;  broadly, 
straitly  ;  shortly.  Comp.  Philol.  Stud.  Art.  XVII. 

The  form  of  this  suffix  in  Anglo-Saxon  is  lie,  which  is  used 
only  as  an  adjective ;  as,  werlic,  manly.  When  used  adverbi- 
ally, it  has  the  adverbial  termination  e  in  addition ;  as,/m5, 
free,freolic,  free,  liberal, /ra$//ce,  freely;  full,  i\\\\,  fullice,  fully. 

The  form  of  this  suffix  in  German  is  lich;  as,freilich,  indeed. 

REMARKS. 

1.  This  suffix  is  an  efficient  living  suffix  in  English,  of  clear 
significaney,  and   capable  of  being  attached  to  almost  every 
proper  adjective  in  the  language.     It  is  added  also  to  partici- 
ples used  as  adjectives,  and  to  the  ordinal  numerals. 

2.  The  few  adjectives  which  do  not  admit  the  suffix  ly,  are 
(1.)  pronominal  adjectives,  which  are  merely  form-words;  (2.) 
adjectives  of  quantity,   as,  great,  small,  etc.,  which   are  also 
form-words,  see  Philol.  Stud.  p.  49 ;  (3.)  adjectives  of  color,  as, 
black,  white,  etc.;  (4.)  adjectives  which  already  end  in  ly ;  as, 
holy,  manly,  goodly,  cleanly,  weakly,  bodily,  daily,  weekly,  etc., 
and  (5.)  a  few  stem-words,  used  both  as  adjectives  and  adverbs, 
which  have  not  yet  adopted  the  suffix  ly  ;  as,  fain,  fast,  (swift,) 
lief,  light,  (not  clark,)  lang,  rath,  (whence  rather.) 

3.  This  form  follows  so  close  on  the  adjective  in  English,  both 
in  usage  and  significancy,  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  mere 
modification  of  the  adjective,  and  hardly  to  need  a  distinct  no- 
tice in  the  dictionary. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS.  23 

4.  There  is  another  use  of  this  suffix,   (see  supra,  p.  20,) 
very  limited  indeed   in  English,   but  much   more  extended  in 
Anglo-Saxon   and   German,   by  which  this  suffix  forms  adjec- 
tives from  substantives  and  from  some  adjectives. 

5.  The  analogies  of  this  suffix  with  some  forms  in  Old  Eng- 
lish and  in  some  Finnish  dialects,  lately  brought  forward  by 
Hensleigh  Wedgwood,  Esq.  in  Trans.  (Lond.)  PhiloL  Soc.  for 
185(3,  show  that  the  etymological  origin  and  force  of  this  suffix 
needs  a  more  full  investigation. 

II.  Derivative  Adverbs  in  s  or  st. 

These  derivatives  form  a  sort  of  adverbial  genitive,  i.  e.  of  a 
genitive  joined  immediately  to  the  verb;  as,  needs,  unawares ; 
once,  twice  ;  hence,  thence.  S  is  sometimes  hardened  into  st  > 
as,  midst,  whilst. 

Adverbial  genitives  are  found  in  the  older  Teutonic  dialects. 

The  form  of  the  genitive  is  sometimes  disguised  in  the  spel- 
ling ;  as,  once,  hence. 

For  a  full  account  of  this  interesting  ancient  genitive  form, 
see  Appendix. 

15.   PRIMARY  DERIVATIVE  CONCRETE  SUBSTANTIVES. 

Derivative  concrete  substantives  end  in  er,  ster,  ard,  en,  ie  or 
y,  kin,  ling,  and  ock. 

Of  these  suffixes,  er  and  ster  are  suffixes  of  the  personal 
agent;  ard  is  an  ampliative;  and  en,  ie  or  y,  kin,  ling,  and  ock, 
are  diminutives. 

Note  1. — The  extinct  suffix  end  \\\  friend,  fiend,  and  more  dis- 
guised husband,  is  the  termination  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  present 
participle,  used  substantively.  Cora  p.  Anglo- Sax.  freond  from 
freon,  to  love ;  feond  from  feon,  to  hate ;  and  Germ,  bauend 
from  bauen,  to  cultivate.  See  Philol.  Stud.  p.  89. 

Note  2. — The  suffix  en,  in,  or  ine,  as  denoting  the  female, 
(com p.  hen,  vixen,  bruin,  carlin,  landgravine,  margravine,)  be- 
longs to  what  the  grammarians  call  motion,  and  does  not  be- 
long here. 

Note  3.— T.  Hewitt  Key,  Esq.  (see  Trans.  (Lond.)  Philol. 
Soc.  for  1856,)  regards  the  termination  ow,  as  a  significant 
suffix,  and  as  having  a  diminutive  force.  But  in  my  view  ow 
is  only  the  remains  or  echo  of  a  palatal  ft  in  the  original  stem ; 
as,  barrow,  a  hog,  Anglo-Sax,  bearg  •  barrow,  a  mound,  Anglo- 


24  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

Sax.  beorg  ;  bellows,  Anglo-Sax.  60?^;  follow,  Anglo- Sax.  fol- 
gian  ;  gallows,  Anglo-Sax,  galga  ;  marrow,  Anglo-Sax,  mearg  ; 
morrow,  Anglo-Sax,  more/en ;  sorrow,  Anglo-Sax,  sorg ;  swal- 
low, (verb,)  Anglo-Sax,  swelgan;  or  of  a  labial  b  or  w  in  the 
original  stem;  as,  fallow,  Anglo- Sax. fealwe,  Germ.falb,  Lat. 
flavus  ;  harrow,  Anglo-Sax,  hyrwe ;  mallow,  Anglo-Sax,  mal- 
we,  Germ,  malve,  Lat.  malva ;  shadow,  Anglo-Sax,  sceadu, 
Moeso-Goth.  skadu-s ;  sparrow,  Anglo-Sax,  spear wa,  Moeso- 
Goth.  sparwa ;  swallow,  (a  bird,)  Germ,  schwalbe ;  wallow, 
Anglo-Sax,  wealwian,  Lat.  volvo. 

I.  Derivative  Concrete  Substantives  in  er. 

The  Teutonic  nominal  suffix  er,  (Moeso-Goth.  arm,  Old 
Germ,  ari,  are,  aere,  Germ,  er,  Anglo-Sax,  ere,)  denotes  the 
active  subject  generally,  but  has  various  subordinate  uses  ;  as, 

1.  Denoting  the  male  person  or  animal,  when  added  to  the 
name  of  the  female ;    as,  widower  from   widow  ;  gander  from 
goose;  (comp.  Germ,  wittwer,  a  widower,  from  wittwe,  a  widow ; 
ganser,  a  gander,  from  gans,  a  goose ;  enterich,  a  drake,  from 
ente,  a  duck ;  tauber,  a  male  pigeon,  from  taube  ;  kater,  a  male 
cat,  from  katze;)  or  when  it  corresponds  to  ess  in  the  name  of 
the  female ;  as  hucksterer,  murderer. 

2.  Denoting  the  personal  subject  in  innumerable  verbs ;  as, 
lover,  hater,  baker,  brewer,  etc. 

3.  Denoting  animals;    as,    hunter,   setter,   sitter,   skimmer, 
spinner. 

4.  Denoting  the  instrumental  subject ;    as,   borer,  clapper, 
cleaver \  climber,  creeper,  cutter,   dipper,  feeler,  girder,  graver, 
grinder,  holder,  roaster,  rubber,  scraper,  shutter,  skimmer,  slip- 
per, strainer,  streamer,  snuffers,  wrapper. 

5.  Denoting  the  personal  subject  connected  with  the  stem 
noun ;  as,  gunner,  hatter,  jobber,  potter,  tinner. 

6.  In  gentle  nouns   and   some    kindred   words ;    as,  New 
Yorker,  burgher. 

Note  1. — In  the  first  acceptation,  which  was  without  doubt 
the  original  one,  the  syllable  er  belongs  to  what  the  gramma- 
rians call  motion,  rather  than  either  inflection  or  formation. 

Note  2. — In  the  second  acceptation,  this  suffix  may  be  at- 
tached to  almost  any  verb  in  the  language,  except  a  few  aux- 
iliary verbs,  and  some  Latin  verbs  which  have  or. 

Note  3. — The  syllable  er  is  thought  to  exist  in  a  disguised 
form  in  the  words,  boor,  neighbor. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS.  25 

For  the  very  various  uses  of  the  English  termination  er,  see 
Appendix, 

II.  Derivative  Concrete  Substantives  in  ster. 

The  English  suffix  ster,  (Anglo-Sax,  estre,  istre,)  is  joined  to 
a  few  English  words  of  Teutonic  origin,  and  denotes 

1.  Primarily  the  feminine  of  the  corresponding  masculine 
form  in  er ;  as,  sew-ster,  (from  §ew-er.)  a  female  who  sews ; 
spiia-ster,  (from  spin-ner,)  a  female  who  spins. 

2,  More  commonly  the  subject  without  reference  to  sex ;  as, 
dabster,  deemster,  drugster,  gamester,  huckster,  hamster,  lewd- 
ster,  lobster,  etc. 

For  more  on  this  suffix,  see  Appendix. 

III.  Derivative  Concrete  Substantives  in  ard. 

The  English  suffix  ard,  (Anglo-Sax,  heard,  Germ,  hard  and 
hart,)  is  probably  connected  with  English  hard,  (Anglo-Sax. 
heard,  Germ,  hart,  Goth,  hardus.) 

This  suffix  is  attached 

1.  To  proper  names  of  persons,  originally  denoting  some 
prominent  or  characteristic  trait ;  as,  Bernard,  Everard,  Gerard, 
Giffard,  Goddard,  Kenard,  Leonard,  Richard,  Wischard.    Also 
Renard,  the  proper  name  of  the  fox  in  poetry  and  fable. 

2.  To  ampliatives  derived  from  adjectives  or  participles,  de- 
noting some  personal  quality  in  excess ;  as,  drunkard,  dullard, 
haggard,  laggard,  lobbard,  niggard,  sluggard,  wizard. 

3.  To  ampliatives  derived  from  verbs,  denoting  some  quality 
in  excess ;  as,  dotard,  pollard.     Usually  some  personal  quality ; 
as,  blinkard,  braggart,  (whence  braggardism,)  dastard,  disard, 
dizzard,  dotard,  stinkard. 

For  more  on  this  suffix,  see  Appendix. 

IV.  Derivative  Concrete  Substantives  in  en. 

The  suffix  en  forms  diminutives  from  concrete  substantives; 
as,  chicR-en,  the  young  of  fowls,  from  cock ;  kitten,  from  cat. 
These  are  accompanied  with  a- change  of  vowel. 

Note. — If  the  form  chicken  involves  the  suffix  ken,  as  some 
suppose,  then  kitten  will  remain  as  a  single  and  doubtful  exam- 
ple of  this  suffix  as  a  diminutive. 
3 


26  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS. 

V.  Derivative  Concrete  Substantives  in  ie  or  y. 

The  suffix  ie  or  y  forms  diminutives  from  concrete  nouns; 
as,  f  ill-y,  from  foal ;  ladd-ie,  from  lad  ;  lass-ie,  from  lass. 

This  suffix  is  derived  from  the  Lowland  Scotch,  in  which 
language  it  is  very  common. 

VI.  Derivative  Concrete  Substantives  in  kin. 

The  suffix  kin  forms  diminutives  from  concrete  substantives. 
Example.     Lamb-kin,  a  little  lamb. 

So  bumkin  or  bumpkin,  buskin  or  bootikin,  ciderkin,  firkin, 
pipkin,  etc. 

For  more  on  this  suffix,  see  Appendix. 

VII.  Derivative  Concrete  Substantives  in  ling. 

The  suffix  ling  forms  diminutives  from  concrete  substantives. 
Example.     Cod-ling. 

So  chickling,  duckling,  gosling,  kidling,  kingling,  killing,  etc. 
For  more  on  this  suffix  which  has  various  other  significations, 
see  Appendix. 

VIII.  Derivative  Concrete  Substantives  in  ock. 

The  suffix  ock  forms  diminutives  from  concrete  substantives. 
Examples.     Hiil-ock,  a  small  hill. 
So  bullock,  a  young  bull. 

The  form  of  this  suffix  in  Anglo-Saxon  seems  to  have  been 
uc,  comp.  bulluca,  mattuc,  pearroc  or  pearruc,  a  park. 

REMARKS. 

1.  Bullock  and  hillock  are  the  only  clear  instances,  in  Eng- 
lish, of  the  diminutive  force  of  this  suffix. 

2.  In  the  Lowland  Scotch  there  are  instances  in  abundance ; 
as,  bittock,  a  little  bit ;  devilock,  a  little  devil ;  hattock,  a  little 
hat;  humplock,  a  little  heap;  knublock,  a  little  knob;  laddock, 
a  little  lad  ;  lassock,  a  little  lass,  etc. 

3.  Other  derivatives  in  ock  in  English  are  buttock,  haddock, 
hammock,  mattock,  mullock. 

4.  T.  Hewitt  Key,  Esq.  makes  the  English  termination  ow 
in  some  words  merely  a  softening  of  ock,  and  gives  it  a  dimin- 
utive force ;  but  see  supra,  p.  23. 


FORMATION  OF  ENGLISH  WORDS.  27 

16.   PRIMARY  DERIVATIVE  ABSTRACT  SUBSTANTIVES. 

Abstract  substantives  include, 

(1.)  Names  of  actions,  i.  e.  activities  without  continuance; 
whether  single,  as  a  call,  a  run  ;  or  repeated,  as  play,  howling. 
— The  infinitive  mode  may  be  included  here. 

(2.)  Names  of  states  or  conditions,  i.  e.  activities,  which  after 
their  nature  are  conceived  of  with  more  or  less  permanency ; 
^joy,  sorrow,  war,  fear,  sleep,  rest,  life,  death,  friendship. 

(3).  Names  of  properties  or  qualities,  i.  e.  immanent  activities 
adhering  to  things ;  as,  wealth,  strength,  weakness.  These  are 
developed  generally  in  antitheses. 

Derivative  abstract  substantives  end  in  ing,  ness,  dom,  ery, 
hood  or  head,  ship  or  scape,  ric,  and  th  or  t. 

Two  of  these  suffixes,  ing  and  ness,  are  living  efficient  suf- 
fixes, pervading  the  whole  language.  The  others  are  merely 
heirlooms,  the  remains  of  ancient  speech. 

Abstract  substantives,  by  a  figure  of  speech,  or  by  a  transi- 
tion of  meaning,  often  become  concrete  nouns.  Thus 

(1.)  The  suffix  hood  sometimes  denotes  the  means;  as,  live- 
lihood, the  means  of  living. 

(2.)  The  suffix  ship  sometimes  denotes  the  effect;  as,  hard- 
ship, injury ;  workmanship,  something  made. 

(3.)  The  suffixes  dom  and  ship  sometimes  denote  the  appur- 
tenances or  possessions ;  as,  kingdom,  the  territory  of  a  king ; 
lordship,  the  territory  of  a  lord. 

(4.)  The  suffixes  ing  and  ery  sometimes  denote  the  collective 
material,  or  the  assemblage  of  things;  as,  shirting,  firing; 
rookery,  shrubbery,  nunnery. 

(5.)  The  suffixes  dom  and  hood  sometimes  denote  the  collec- 
tive concrete ;  as,  peer  dom,  neighborhood,  sisterhood. 

(6.)  The  suffix  ery  sometimes  denotes  the  place  where  a 
thing  is  found  or  an  action  performed ;  as,  nunnery,  bakery. 

I.  Abstract  Substantives  in  ing. 

This  is  the  appropriate  form  to  denote  abstractly  the  action 
expressed  by  the  verb ;  as,  an  offering,  a  writing,  a  singing. 

Every  verb,  the  auxiliary  verb  excepted,  is  supposed  to  de- 
note action  ;  and  from  every  verb,  whether  simple  or  derivative, 
whether  of  Teutonic  or  classic  origin,  is  formed  a  noun  of  ac- 
tion by  means  of  this  one  suffix  ing. 


28  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

The  suffix  ing,  (Goth,  eins,  Iceland,  ing,  ung,  Germ,  ung, 
Dutch  ing,)  has  in  English  taken  the  place  also  of  the  present 
participle,  which  in  the  earlier  cognate  dialects  had  a  different 
form. 

On  this  substantive  participial  in  ing,  see  Philol.  Stud.  p.  98. 

II.  Abstract  Substantives  in  ness. 

1.  This  suffix  is  found  in  upwards  of  thirteen  hundred  words, 
and  is  worthy  of  attention,  on  account  of  the  extent  of  its  use. 

2.  The  corresponding  forms  in  the  cognate  dialects  are,  Mce- 
so-Goth.  inassus,  Old  Germ,  nissa,  nissi,  Old  Sax.  nessi,  Anglo- 
Sax,  nes,  nis,  nys,  Germ,  niss,  Dutch  nis.     It  is  not  found  in 
the  Scandinavian  dialects. 

3.  The  modern  English  orthography  of  this  suffix  is  constant 
and  uniform.     The  vowel  is  always  e.     But  in  the  more  an- 
cient dialects,  the  vowel  before  ss  vacillated  between  a,  i,  and  u, 
without  any  obvious  difference  of  meaning. 

4.  The  n  of  this  suffix  has  evidently  arisen  from  agglutina- 
tion.    Compare  the  Mceso-Gothic  blot-in-assus,  "  worship,"  from 
the  verb  blot-in  on.     Nothing  further  than  this  has  been  dis- 
covered as  to  its  origin. 

5.  The  suffix  ness,  in  English,  is  a  living  suffix,  that  is,  it  has 
a  meaning  present  to  the  mental  conception  of  those  who  use 
it,  and  is  capable  of  being  affixed  to  new  words. 

6.  The  suffix  ness,  in  English,  forms  abstract  nouns  from  ad- 
jectives.    These  abstract  nouns  denote 

(1.)  The  quality,  in  a  substantive  form,  of  the  adjective  from 
which  they  are  derived  ;  as  goodness,  hardness. 

(2.)  Occasionally,  by  a  metonymy  of  the  abstract  for  the 
concrete,  something  possessing  the  quality ;  a  fastness,  a  like- 
ness. 

The  suffix  niss,  in  German,  is  attached  also  to  verbs.  It  de- 
notes (1.)  the  action;  as,  verderbniss,  "corruption;"  (2.)  by  a 
metonymy,  the  subject  of  the  action ;  as  hinderness,  "  some- 
thing that  hinders ;"  and  (3.)  by  a  metonymy,  the  object  of  the 
action ;  as,  erzeugniss,  '*  something  produced." 

For  more  on  this  suffix,  see  Appendix. 

III.  Abstract  Substantives  in  dom. 

The  suffix  dom,  (Anglo-Sax,  dom,  Mceso-Goth.  dom,  Germ. 
thum,  Lat.  tium,  Sansk.  twan,)  is  of  uncertain  origin,  and  forms 
abstract  substantives. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS.  29 

Example.     Wi§-dom,  the  quality  of  being  wise. 

This  suffix  is  joined  for  the  most  part  to  adjectives  and  at- 
tributive substantives,  and  denotes  (1.)  the  quality  ;  as,  wisdom  ; 
(2.)  the  state;  as,  freedom,  thraldom;  (3.)  the  condition;  as, 
birthdom,  earldom ;  (4.)  an  act;  as,  whoredom ;  (5.)  by  a  me- 
tonymy, appurtenances  or  possessions ;  as,  kingdom ;  and  (6.) 
by  a  metonymy  again,  the  collective  concrete ;  as,  peerdom. 

For  more  oil  this  suffix,  see  Appendix. 

IV.  Abstract  Substantives  in  ery. 

The  suffix  ery  forms  abstract  nouns,  but  has  various  derived 
significations.  Thus  it  denotes 

(1.)  The  business  or  employment ;  as  Joinery,  knavery,  rogue- 
ry, thievery. 

(2.)  The  state  or  condition  ;  as,  slavery. 

(3.)  By  a  metonymy,  the  place  where  a  thing  is  found,  or 
an  action  is  performed ;  as,  nunnery,  rookery,  shrubbery  ;  bak- 
ery, brewery. 

(4.)  By  a  metonymy  again,  the  assemblage  of  things  them- 
selves ;  as,  rookery,  shrubbery,  bakery. 

V.  Abstract  Substantives  in  hood  or  head. 

This  suffix  hood  or  head,  (Anglo-Sax,  had,  hade,  Germ,  heit, 
keit,)  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Sax,  had,  state,  habit,  condi- 
tion, and  this  from  Anglo-Sax,  hadian,  to  ordain,  as  if  to  set 
or  place.  It  forms  abstract  substantives. 

Examples.     Boy-hood,  god-bead. 

This  suffix  is  joined  to  adjectives  and  attributive  substantives, 
and  denotes  (1.)  the  nature  or  essence ;  as,  godhead ;  (2.)  the 
quality;  as,  hardihood,  lustihood  ;  (3.)  the  state ;  as,  boyhood, 
childhood;  (4.)  the  condition  ;  as,  knighthood, priesthood ;  (5.) 
by  a  metonymy  of  the  abstract  for  the  concrete,  something  pos- 
sessing the  quality  ;  as,  falsehood  ;  (6.)  by  a  metonymy  again, 
the  collective  concrete;  as,  neighborhood,  sisterhood ;  (7.)  by  a 
metonymy  again,  the  cause  or  means ;  as,  livelihood. 

For  more  on  this  suffix,  see  Appendix. 

VI.  Abstract  Substantives  in  ric. 

The  suffix  forms  abstract  nouns  in  a  few  examples ;  as, 
bishopric,  bishopric. 

3* 


30  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

VII.  Abstract  Substantives  in  ship  or  scape. 

The  suffix  ship  or  scape,  (Anglo -Sax.  sceaft,  scype,  stipe, 
Germ,  schaft,)  is  derived  from  Moeso-Goth.  slcapan,  Eng.  to 
shape,  and  denotes  the  make  or  shape.  It  forms  abstract  sub- 
stantives. 

Examples.     Ward-ship,  land-scape. 

This  suffix  is  joined  for  the  most  part  to  attributive  substan- 
tives, and  denotes  (1.)  the  state  or  condition;  as,  friendship, 
kingship,  wardship ;  (2.)  an  act;  as,  courtship ;  (3.)  by  a  me- 
tonymy, appurtenances  or  possessions ;  as,  lordship ;  and  (4.) 
by  a  metonymy  again,  the  effect  or  resultant  state;  as,  hard- 
ship,  workmanship. 

For  more  on  this  suffix,  see  Appendix. 

VIII.  Abstract  Substantives  in  th  or  t. 

The  suffix  Ih  or  t  is  joined  to  verbs,  and  denotes  the  action 
of  the  verb,  taken  abstractly,  or  is  joined  to  adjectives,  and  de- 
notes the  quality. 

1.  Joined  to  verbs ;  as,  bight,  birth,  berth,  bloioth,  broth,  death, 
draught,  draft,  earth,  flight,  growth,  might,  ruth,  sight,  spilth, 
stealth,  tilth,  weight. 

2.  Joined  to  adjectives ;  as,  breadth,  dearth,  depth,  drought, 
filth,  health*  height,  length,  sleight,  sloth,  strength,  truth  or  troth^ 
warmth,  width,  youth. 

This  suffix  is  uniformly  th,  except  when  preceded  by  an  orig- 
inal palatal  g  (not  the  nasal  ng,)  which  has  now  lost  its  sound. 
In  this  case  the  suffix  is  written  t ;  as,  weight,  height. 

In  the  kindred  dialects  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  broth,  strength ; 
Moeso-Goth.  maht-s,  might ;  diupitha,  depth ;  Germ,  macht, 
might. 

For  more  on  this  suffix,  see  Appendix. 

Interchange  of  the  Forms  of  Abstract  Nouns  in  the  different 
Teutonic  Dialects. 

There  is  great  freedom  in  the  use  of  the  several  forms  of  ab- 
stract nouns,  especially  in  the  different  Teutonic  dialects,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  following  Table. 

Eng.  goodness,  Eng.  good. 

Eng.  goodness,  Germ,  gutheit. 

Eng.  foulness,  Eng.  filth. 

Eng.  Christendom,  Germ.  christenheiL 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS.  31 

Eng.  brotherhood.  Germ,  bruderschaft. 

Eng.  bishopric,  Anglo-Sax,  bishopdom. 

Eng.  abbotship,  Anglo-Sax,  abbotdom. 

Eng.  knowledge,  Germ,  kenntniss. 

17.   TEUTONIC  SECONDARY  DERIVATIVES. 

Secondary  derivatives  are  derivatives  from  other  derivatives ; 
as,  fearfulness  and  fearfully  from  fearful ;  fearlessness  and  fear- 
lessly from  fearless. 

These  secondary  derivatives,  with  two  suffixes  only,  end  in 
edness,  fulness,  ishness,  lessness,  liness,  someness,  wardness, 
iness ;  edly,  fully,  ishly,  lessly,  somely,  tidy,  wardly,  ily. 

I.  Derivative  Substantives  in  ness  from  Adjectives  in  ed. 

Example.     Tir-ed-ness,  the  state  of  being  tired. 
So  blessedness,  cursedness  ;  crazedness,  numbedness  ;  cragged- 
ness,  raggedness,  scabbedness  ;  nakedness,  wretchedness. 

II.  Derivative  Substantives  in  ness  from  Adjectives  in  ful. 

Example.     tta.te-ful-ness,  the  quality  of  being  hateful. 

So  awfulness,  blissfulness,  dreadful  ness,  fearfulness,  glad- 
fulness,  heedf ulness,  hopefulness,  lustfulness,  needfulness,  skil- 
fulness,  thought  fulness,  wrongfulness. 

III.  Derivative  Substantives  in  ness  from  Adjectives  in  isli. 

Example.     Child-ish-ness,  the  quality  of  being  childish. 
So  boyishness,  roguishness,  thievishness,  slavishness,  fool- 
ishness, cloionishness,  boorishness,  whitishness. 

IV.  Derivative  Substantives  in  ness  from  Adjectives  in  less. 

Example.     Blame-less-ness,  the  quality  of  being  blameless. 

So  boundlessness,  endlessness,  harmlessness,  heedlessness^ 
helplessness ,  fearlessness,  needlessness,  shamelessness,  sinless- 
ness,  thoughtlessness. 

V.  Derivative  Substantives  in  ness  from  Adjectives  in  ly. 

Example,     liord-li-ness,  the  quality  of  being  lordly. 

So  friendliness,  godliness,  manliness ;  earthliness,  fleshli- 
ness,  homeliness;  goodliness,  cleanliness,  liveliness,  loneliness ; 
comeliness.,  silliness,  ugliness. 


32  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

VI.  Derivative  Substantives  in  ness  from  Adjectives  in  some. 

Example.     Play-some-ness,  the  quality  of  being  play  some. 

So  gamesomeness,  toilsomeness,  toothsomeness ;  darksome- 
ness,  fulsomeness,  gladsomeness ;  handsomeness,  irksomeness, 
tiresomeness. 

VII.  Derivative  Substantives  in  nessfrom  Adjectives  in  ward. 

Example.     To-ward-ness,  the  quality  of  being  toward. 
So  frowardness ;  forwardness,   backwardness ;  wayward- 
ness. 

VIII.  Derivative  Substantives  in  ness  from  Adjectives  in  y. 

Example.     Mud-di-ness,  the  quality  of  being  muddy. 

So  fogginess,  mistiness ;  grassiness,  hairiness,  airiness  ; 
easiness,  gloominess,  sleepiness  ;  craftiness,  thriftiness ;  hoar- 
iness,  wariness,  weariness. 

IX.  Derivative  Adverbs' in  ly  from  Adjectives  in  ed. 

Example.     BIe§§-ed-ly,  in  a  blessed  manner. 
So    cursedly,    learnedly;    crookedly,  forkedJy,   rootedly ; 
doggedly,  crabbedly  ;  nakedly,  wretchedly,  wickedly. 

X.  Derivative  Adverbs  in  ly  from  Adjectives  in  ful. 

Example.     H ur t-ful-ly,  in  a  hurtful  manner. 

So  awfully,  fearfully,  hopefully,  hatefully ;  skilfully,  spite- 
fully, sinfully ;  thoughtfully,  healthfully,  slothfully ;  bliss- 
fully, dreadfully,  heedfully,  lustfully,  needfully,  shamefully, 
wrongfully. 

XL  Derivative  Adverbs  in  ly  from  Adjectives  in  ish. 

Example.     Child-ish-ly,  in  a  childish  manner. 
So  foolishly,  foppishly,  boorishly,  knavishly  ;  freakishly , 
lumpishly,  skittishly. 

XII.  Derivative  Adverbs  in  ly  from  Adjectives  in  less. 

Example.     Fear-less-ly,  in  a  fearless  manner. 

So  endlessly,  groundlessly,  guiltlessly,  harmlessly,  heed- 
lessly, helplessly,  needlessly,  shamelessly,  blamelessly,  fear" 
lessly,  shamelessly,  thoughtlessly,  heartlessly. 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS.  33 

XIII.  Derivative  Adverbs  in  \yfrom  Adjectives  in  some. 

Example.     Ful-some-ly,  in  a  fulsome  manner. 

So  gladsomely,  handsomely,  irksomely,  wholesomely. 

XIV.  Derivative  Adverbs  in  ly  from  Ordinal  Adjectives  in 

th. 

Example.     Four-th-ly,  in  the  fourth  place. 
So  fifthly,  sixthly,  seventhly ;  thirdly. 

XV.  Derivative  Adverbs  in  ly  from  Adjectives  in  ward. 

Example.     For-ward-ly,  in  a  forward  manner. 
So  lackwardly ;  towardly,frowardly;  inwardly,  outward* 
ly ;  eastwardly,  weslwardly. 

XVI.  Derivative  Adverbs  in  }yfrom  Adjectives  in  y. 

Example.     Speed-My,  in  a  speedy  manner. 
So  shabbily,  saucily,  steadily,  happily,  muddily,  dirtily,  filth- 
ily, healthily,  wealthily,  weightily,  hungrily,  needily. 

18.   TEUTONIC  TERTIARY  DERIVATIVES. 

Tertiary  derivatives  are  formed  from  their  stems  by  a  triple 
suffix ;  as,  wear-i-some-ness,  from  the  stem  wear,  to  last,  tire. 
They  have  the  following  terminations:  th-i-ness,  ard-li-ness, 
en-li-ness,  ward-li-ness,  i-some-ness,  le-some-ness,  th-ful-ness  ; 
th-en-ina  ;  ship-ful-ly,  th-i-ly,  en-ing-ly,  er-ing-ly,  i-some-ly,  le- 
some-ly. 

I.  Substantive  Tertiary  Derivatives* 

The  following  are  examples :  leiBg-th-i-ness,  frostiness,  might- 
iness, thriftiness;  Iieav-en-li-ness,  maidenliness,  slovenliness; 
co"%v-ard-li-ness,  dastardliricss,  niggardliness;  to-ward-li-ness ; 
wear-i-some-ness;  inett-le-some-ness ;  §Io-th-ful  ness,  health- 
fulness  ;  leng-th-en-ing. 

II.  Adverbial  Tertiary  Derivatives. 

The  following  are  examples :  wor~ship-ful-ly ;  leiig-th-i-ly  ; 
mightily,  thriftily;  threat-en-injr-ly ;  falt-er-ing-ly,  flatter- 
ingly, glitteringly,  lingeringly,  loweringly,  mutteringly,  scatter- 
ingly,  pilferingly  ;  wear-i-some-ly  ;  mett-le-some-ly. 

Note. — Derivatives,  with  more  than  three  suffixes,  are  not 
found  in  the  Teutonic  portion,  of  our  language. 


34  FORMATION  OF  ENGLISH  WORDS. 

19.   FORMATION  OF  TEUTONIC  WORDS  IN  ENGLISH  BY 
PREFIXES. 

Derivation  of  words,  or  the  formation  of  words  by  internal 
change  of  vowel  and  by  suffixes,  gives  us  different  forms  of 
ideas ;  as,  drink  (noun),  drinker,  drinking  (participle),  drink- 
ing (noun),  drench,  all  forms  or  modifications  of  the  radical 
idea  to  drink. 

Composition,  or  the  combination  of  two  words,  each  express- 
ing a  distinct  idea,  so  as  to  form  one  word  expressing  one  idea, 
is  a  development  of  the  species  from  the  genus,  and  gives  us 
different  species  of  ideas;  as,  bake-house,  brew-house,  toiun- 
house,  all  species  under  the  general  term  house.  This  process 
is  especially  adapted  to  form  substantives. 

The  formation  of  words  by  prefixes,  that  is,  by  particles  de- 
noting not  distinct  ideas,  but  merely  relations,  is  also  a  devel- 
opment of  the  species  from  the  genus,  and  gives  us  different 
species  of  ideas;  as,  forego,  outgo,  overgo,  undergo,  all  species 
under  the  general  term  to  go  ;  and  in  words  derived  from  the 
Latin,  attend,  contend,  intend,  pretend,  subtend,  all  species  under 
the  general  term  to  tend.  But  this  process  is  especially  adapted 
to  form  verbs  and  verbal  derivatives. 

The  prefix  is  usually  a  particle  denoting  motion,  or,  rather, 
the  direction  of  motion.  The  verb  also  expresses  motion,  or  is 
so  conceived  by  the  mind.  Hence  the  prefix  renders  the  mean- 
ing of  the  verb  more  specific  by  giving  the  direction  of  the 
motion. 

The  formation  of  words  by  prefixes  is  an  ancient  process  in 
language.  It  was  extensively  employed  in  Gothic  and  Anglo- 
Saxon,  the  ancient  languages  whence  the  Teutonic  portion  of 
our  own  tongue  is  derived.  In  the  English  language  it  has 
ceased  to  be  an  active  living  principle.  Compound  verbs  of 
Teutonic  origin,  in  the  ordinary  cases  where  the  prefix  retains 
its  primary  local  signification,  have  been  disused,  and  the  pre- 
fix employed  separately  after  the  verb.  Thus  we  now  have  to 
give  in,  to  give  over,  to  give  out,  to  give  up,  as  species  under  the 
general  term  to  give. 

The  few  cases  in  which  such  compound  words  have  been  re- 
tained in  English  are  the  following : 

1.  Where  the  force  of  the  prefix  is  entirely  lost;  as,  arise, 
aivake. 

2.  Where  the  meaning  of  the  prefix  is  not  obvious ;  as,  an- 
swer, begin,  forsake,  withstand,  upbraid. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS.  35 

3.  Where  the  prefix  has  lost  its  local  meaning,  and  acquired 
a  metaphorical  one;  as,  outbid,  uphold,  overdo,  underbid,  fore- 
go, bemoan,  begird,  becharm,  forgive,  forswear. 

4.  Where  the  prefix  denotes  time;  as,  outlive,  overlive, fore- 
see. 

5.  Where  the  prefix  has  an  unusual  physical  meaning ;  as, 
overtake,  overturn,  withstand. 

6.  Where  the  retraction  of  the  accent  in  certain  verbal  de- 
rivatives has  preserved  the  word  from  being  lost ;  as,  offset,  in- 
come, outcast,  upstart,  downfall,  overfall,  undershot,  for  enamed, 
by-gone. 

7.  A  few  other  verbs,  mostly  obsolescent ;  as,  inbreed,  infold, 
outbud,  outbar,  gainstand,  gainsay. 

The  difference  between  these  compounds  and  the  use  of  a 
separate  particle  may  be  illustrated  by  comparing  inhold  with 
hold  in,  outrun  with  run  out,  uphold  with  hold  up,  overthrow 
with  throw  over,  understand  with  stand  under,  forego  with  go 
before,  backslide  with  slide  back,  withhold  with  hold  ivith. 

TEUTONIC  WORDS  IN  ENGLISH  FORMED  BY  PREFIXES. 

The  Teutonic  prefixes  here  concerned  are  particles  of  place, 
and  had  originally  that  significancy,  as  is  shown  by  the  more 
ancient  languages.  They  may  be  arranged  for  the  most  part 
in  pairs  or  antitheses.  This  constitutes  a  natural  order. 

To,  implying  direction,  as  Anglo-Sax,  tocuman,  to  come  to. 
This  prefix  can  not  be  used  in  English  before  verbs,  as  it  would 
be  confounded  with  to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive.  It  remains 
only  in  toward,  (adj.  or  adv.)  with  accent  retracted. 

At,  another  form  of  the  particle  to,  as  Goth,  atrinnan,  to  run 
to.  There  is  no  compound  word  in  English  with  this  prefix. 
It  must  not  be  confounded  with  at  in  verbs  of  Latin  origin  ; 
as,  attain,  attempt,  attend ;  or  in  words  of  French  origin;  as, 
attach,  attack. 

Of,  the  opposite  of  to,  and  denoting  from,  as  Anglo-Sax. 
ofbeatan,  to  beat  off.  The  only  compounds  remaining  in  Eng- 
lish are  verbal  derivatives  with  the  accent  drawn  back,  (which 
retraction  of  the  accent  has  preserved  the  word  from  being 
lost) ;  as,  offset,  offshoot,  offspring,  off  scouring.  With  offset, 
compare  set  off. 

From,  a  more  modern  form  than  of,  but  with  the  same  force; 
as  Anglo  Sax.  fromcuman,  to  be  rejected.  No  example  re- 


36  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

mains  in  English  except  adj.  froward,  (for  fromivard,)  with 
the  accent  drawn  back. 

In,  as  Anglo-Sax,  incuman,  to  come  in.  In  English  only  in 
doubtful  or  obsolescent  forms ;  as,  inbreathe,  inbreed,  inhold, 
infold;  and  in  verbals  with  accent  drawn  back;  as,  income, 
inborn,  inbred.  For  the  difference  of  meaning,  compare  inhold 
with  hold  in. 

On,  probably  another  form  of  the  particle  in,  as  Anglo- 
Sax,  onbrican,  to  break  in.  In  English  only  in  verbals  with 
accent  drawn  back ;  as,  onset,  onslaught. 

A,  a  corruption  or  mutilation  of  on,  as  agoing,  i.  e.  going  on  ; 
awriting,  i.  e.  writing  on. 

Out,  the  opposite  of  in,  as  Anglo-Sax,  utdragan,  to  drag 
out.  In  English  only  where  the  particle  has  a  metaphorical 
or  unusual  sense;  as,  outbid,  outblush,  outbreathe,  outbuild, 
outburn,  outdo,  outrun;  also  outbar,  outbud;  and  in  some  ver- 
bals with  accent  drawn  back;  as,  outbound,  outborn,  outcast. 
For  the  difference  of  meaning,  compare  outgo  with  go  out; 
outstand,  to  stand  beyond  the  proper  time,  with  to  stand  out, 
to  project. 

Up,  as  Anglo-Sax,  upcuman,  to  come  up.  In  English  in 
some  obsolescent  verbs  ;  as,  upbear,  upblow,  updraw,  upheave  ; 
also,  when  the  prefix  has  a  metaphorical  sense ;  as  upbraid,  up- 
hold ;  and  in  verbals  with  accent  drawn  back;  as,  upstart,  up- 
rising, upright.  For  the  difference  of  meaning,  compare  uphold 
with  hold  up. 

Down,  in  some  verbs ;  as,  down-bear,  and  more  verbals  ;  as, 
downcast,  downfall,  downlooked,  downtrod. 

Over  ;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  ofercliman,  to  climb  over.  In  English 
only  where  the  particle  has  a  metaphorical  or  unusual  sense ; 
as,  overawe,  overbear,  overbend,  overbid,  overgo,  overflow,  overdo, 
oversee,  overtake.  Compare  overturn  with  turn  over,  overthrow 
with  throw  over. 

Under,  the  opposite  of  over,  as  Anglo-Sax,  undercuman,  to 
come  under.  In  English  where  the  particle  has  a  metaphorical 
or  unusual  meaning;  as,  underbear,  underbid,  underdo,  un- 
dergo, undersell,  undertake.  Compare  understand  with  stand 
under. 

Fore,  as  Anglo-Sax,  forecuman,  to  come  before.  In  English 
only  where  the  particle  refers  to  time,  or  has  some  unusual  sig- 
nification ;  as,  forearm,  forebode,  forecast,  foreknow,  foresee, 
forethink,  foretell,  forego,  forenamed. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS.  87 

After,  as  Anglo-Sax,  cefterridan,  to  ride  after.  In  English 
only  in  verbals  with  accent  drawn  back ;  as,  after-cost,  after- 
vrop,  after-piece. 

Back,  a  later  form  for  after  or  behind;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  bcec- 
beran,  to  take  on  the  back.  In  English  only  in  backbite,  back- 
slide,  backwound. 

By  and  be,  as  Goth,  birinnan,  to  run  by ;  Anglo-Sax,  be- 
cwcedhan,  to  bequeath.  In  English  only  where  the  import  of  the 
prefix  is  not  obvious ;  as,  behead,  become ;  or  where  the  accent 
is  drawn  back ;  as,  by-gone,  by-past. 

For  a  more  full  account  of  the  prefix  be,  see  Appendix. 

For,  in  the  sense  of  forth  or  away,  as,  Anglo- Sax.  forsendan, 
to  send  forth  or  away.  In  English  in  forbid,  forgive,  forswear. 

For  a  more  full  account  of  the  prefix  for,  see  Appendix. 

Grain,  in  the  sense  of  against ;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  geonbceran,  to 
oppose.  In  English  in  gainsay ;  also,  gaingive,  gainstand, 
gainstrive. 

With,  in  the  sense  of  away  or  against,  as,  Anglo-Sax,  widh- 
Iwdan,  to  lead  away  ;  widhgan,  to  go  against.  In  English  only 
in  withdraw,  withhold,  withstand. 

An  or  and,  a  Teutonic  prefix  signifying  against,  as,  Anglo- 
Sax,  andsacian,  to  deny.  Only  in  English  answer. 

A  or  ge,  a  Teutonic  prefix,  originally  equivalent  to  Lat.  co 
or  con,  with,  then  attached  to  the  past  participle,  but  finally 
used  before  verbs  nearly  without  significancy.  So  in  English 
without  significancy  before  participles  and  adjectives ;  as,  adrift, 
along ,  aloud j  and  also  before  verbs;  as,  to  abide,  to  arise,  to 
awake. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  prefix  a,  see  Appendix. 

There  are  two  other  Teutonic  particles,  mis  and  un,  which 
differ  somewhat  from  the  preceding,  especially  in  not  referring 
to  place  or  direction. 

Mis,  in  the  sense  of  wrong,  amiss,  (connected  with  Eng.  to 
miss,  to  fail ;)  as,  to  misshape,  to  mistake,  to  misdo ;  also  aa 
equivalent  to  the  prefix  un;  as,  to  mislike,  to  misrule,  to  mis- 
trust. 

For  more  on  the  prefix  mis,  see  Appendix. 

Un,  a  negative  particle,  denying  the  predicate  or  attribute; 
as,  unwise,  to  undo  ;  and  sometimes  passing  into  the  opposite^ 
idea ;  as,  unfair,  unhappy,  untrue,  to  unhook,  to  uncover*. 


38  FORMATION  OF  ENGLISH  WORDS. 

20.  TEUTONIC  WORDS  WITH  BOTH  PREFIXES  AND  SUFFIXES. 

Many  Teutonic  words  have  both  prefixes  and  suffixes.  These 
present  a  considerable  variety. 

Fore-ruii-ner,  backslider,  bequeather,  bystander. 

Be-lov-ed,  mistaken,  becoming. 

For-give-ness,  unripeness. 

Un-love-ly,  unfairly. 

Under-lak-er,  overseer. 

For-get-ful-ness,  unwillingness,  unworthiness. 

Un-will-ing-ly,  unskilfully,  mistrustfully,  unluckily,  un- 
boundedly. 

Over-weei>ing-ly,  unbecomingly. 

Note. — These  words  are  to  be  analyzed  on  the  principle  of 
binary  composition  ;  see  Philol.  Stud.  p.  11,  12.  Thus  unbe- 
comingly is  derived  from  unbecoming  ;  unbecoming  is  made  up 
of  un  and  becoming ;  becoming  is  derived  from  become;  and 
become  is  made  up  of  be  and  come. 

21.  THE  FORMATION  OF  COMPOUND  WORDS. 

1.  Composition,  or  the  formation  of  compound  words,  is  a 
special  mode  of  forming  new  words  and  developing  new  ideas. 

2.  Composition,  considered  externally,  is  the  combination  of 
two  words  expressing  distinct  ideas,  so  as  to  form  one  word  ex- 
pressing one  idea.    The  word  thus  formed  is  called  a  compound. 
This  definition  is  sufficient  for  the  merely  practical  grammarian. 

3.  Composition,  considered  in  its  internal  nature,  is,  like 
many  other  linguistical  processes,  a  development  of  the  species 
from  the  genus ;  that  is,  the  name  of  the  genus,  as  boat,  by 
prefixing  the  specific   difference,    as   steam,   ( i.  e.   moved   by 
steam,)  now  denotes  the  species,  as  steam-boat.     This  is  the 
more  philosophical  definition. 

4.  In  reference  to  the  mental  process  in  composition  just 
described,  the  compound  consists  of  two  parts,  viz.  the  general, 
or  that  which  denotes  the  genus ;  and  the  special,  or  that  which 
denotes  the  specific  difference.     The  latter,  which  is  the  leading 
member  of  the  composition,  usually  precedes,  and  has  the  tone 
or  accent. 

5.  The  unity  of  the  word  consists  in  the  tone  or  accent, 
which  binds  together  the  two  parts  of  the  composition.     The 
mere  orthography  is  an  uncertain  criterion,  being  sometimes 
entirely  arbitrary. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS.  39 

6.  The  unity  of  the  idea  consists  in  its  referring  to  something 
specific,  well  known  as  having  a  permanent  existence. 

7.  Every  composition  is  binary,   or  every  compound  consists 
properly  of  only  two  members,  although  these  may  themselves 
be   compounded.      Compare    household- staff,    bird1  seye-maple, 
townhouse-doorkey,   which   must  be   analyzed   conformably  to 
this  principle.     The  most  plausible  exception  is  Latin  suovl- 
taurus,  (whence  suovitaurilia,)  "a  swine,  sheep,  and  bull." 

8.  Composition  is  an  original  process  in  language,  distinct, 
on  the  one  hand,  from  derivation,  that  is,  the  formation  of 
words  by  internal  change  of  vowel  and  by  suffixes,  and  on  the 
other,  from  the  mere  syntactical  combination  of  ideas. 

9.  Composition    differs    essentially   from    the  formation    of 
words  by  internal  change  of  vowel  and  by  suffixes,  in  this,  that 
derivation  gives  us  different  forms  of  ideas ;  as,  drink,  (noun,) 
drinker,  drinking,  (noun,)  to  drench,  all  forms  or  modifications 
of  the  radical  idea  to  drink ;   to  set,  to  settle,  sitter,  setter,  seat, 
sitting,  (noun,)  all  from  the  radical  idea  to  di ;  while  compo- 
sition gives  us  species  of  ideas ;  as,  bake-house,  brew-house,  town- 
house,  all  species  under  the  general  term  house  ;  door-key,  box- 
key,  watch-key,  species  of  keys. 

10.  As  a  mode  of  forming  words,  composition  is  later  in  its 
origin  than  derivation,  and  has  arisen  from  the  inadequacy  of 
derivation  to  express  the  definite  ideas  which  become  necessary 
in  language.     Thus,  mere  derivation  would  be  insufficient  to 
express  the  different  kinds  of  keys ;  as,  door -key,  box-key,  watch- 
key  ;    or  the  different  kinds  of  glasses  ;    as,  beer-glass,  wine- 
glass, etc. 

11.  Notwithstanding  which,  there  is  some  common  ground 
for  derivation  and  composition,   and  the  two  forms  may  alter- 
nate.    In  such  a  case  the  derivative  is  the  more  forcible,  and 
the  compound  is  the  more  precise  in  its  import.    Thus  we  have 
in  English,  (neglecting  accidental  differences  of  usage,)  hunter 
and  huntsman,  speaker  and  spokesman,  plower  and  plowman, 
hatter  and  hat-maker,  steamer  and  steam-boat,  bakery  and  bake- 
house, brewery  and   brew-house,  deemster  and   domesman ;    so 
also  where  the  words  are  radically  distinct;    as,  fowler  and 
bird-catcher,  Hollander  and  Dutchman,  journal  and  day-book, 
marine  and  seaman,  navigating  and   sea-faring,  vintage  and 
grape- gather  ing,   vintner  and   wine-seller.      These  coincidences 
take  place  only  when  the  second  part  of  the  compound   is  a 
very  general  or  indefinite  term,  or  has  become  so  by  use.     In 


40  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

this  way  words  originally  compound  acquire  much  of  the  char- 
acter of  derivatives.  , 

12.  Composition  differs,  also,  from  the  mere  syntactical  com- 
bination of  ideas.     Composition  is  a  development  of  words  for 
constant,  not  merely  for  occasional  use.     It  is  not  an  arbitrary 
process  in  language,  or  a  process  to  be  adopted  at  pleasure.    A 
proper  compound  must  express  a  specific  idea  formed  for  per- 
manent use  in  the  language.     Wherever  it  takes  place,  there 
should  be  an  adequate  cause  or  occasion.     Not  every  combina- 
tion of  two  ideas  into  one  is  properly  expressed  by  a  compound. 
Ideas  combined  at  the  moment  of  speaking  or  writing,  for  the 
first  time,  do  not  form  compound  words.     It  is  owing  to  this 
principle  that  we  have  death-wound,  not  life-wound ;  father- 
land, not  son-land ;  fox-hunter,  not  sheep-hunter;  earthquake, 
not  sea-quake ;  sea-sick,  not  fear-sick,  because  the  latter  terms 
of  these  coupjets  are  not  called  for. 

13.  The  difference  between  the  compound  word  and  the 
mere  syntactical  construction  may  be  seen, 

(1.)  By  comparing  black-bird,  a  species  of  bird,  with  a  black 
bird ;  so  red-bird,  black-berry,  mad-house. 

(2.)  By  comparing  fox-tail,  a  plant  so  named  from  resem- 
blance, with  the  tail  of  a  fox;  so  beards-ear 'f  goafs-beard,  lady's- 
finger. 

(3.)  By  comparing  rafs-bane,  a  substance  so  called  from  its 
nature,  with  the  bane  of  a  rat;  so  catch-fly,  king's-evil,  liver- 
wort. 

14.  The  unity  of  the  compound  is  further  evident  by  con- 
sidering, 

(1.)  That  in  many  words  the  members  of  the  composition 
do  not  appear  at  first  view,  nor  are  they  generally  understood ; 
as,  daisy,  fortnight,  sennight. 

(2.)  That  in  many  words  the  meaning  has  so  altered  that 
the  reason  of  the  composition  is  not  obvious ;  as,  holiday,  land- 
lord, mildew,  quicksand,  quicksilver,  Sunday. 

(3.)  That  compounds  may  often  be  expressed  by  simple 
words,  either  in  the  same  or  another  language ;  as,  brimstone, 
sulphur ;  wine-glass,  a  tumbler :  sheep-fold,  Lat.  ovile ;  foot- 
man, Lat.  pedes ;  oak-grove,  Lat.  quercetum ;  dove-house,  Lat. 
columbarium. 


FORMATION"    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS. 


22.  TEUTONIC  COMPOUND  WORDS  IN  ENGLISH. 

Compound  words  in  English,  as  distinguished  from  deriva- 
tives, have  received  comparatively  but  little  attention  ;  yet, 
from  the  great  variety  of  the  component  parts,  and  the  differ- 
ent relations  in  which  they  stand  to  each  other,  it  is  evident 
that  these  words  deserve  a  more  minute  investigation. 

Composition  is  the  union  of  two  independent  words  in  order 
to  form  one.  This  union  may  be  more  or  less  complete. 

I.  Imperfect  Composition. 

When  two  words  denote  distinct  attributes  of  one  and  the 
same  object,  and  their  syntactical  connection  may  be  expressed 
by  the  simple  conjunction  and,  the  composition  is  then  incom- 
plete or  imperfect.  Of  this  nature  are, 

1.  The  union  of  two  common  names;    as,   God-man,   God 
and  man  ;  (comp.  Gr.  &e&vd()umoz ;  Germ,  furst-bischof,  prince 
and  bishop ;    butter-brot,  bread   and  butter ;  mann-weib,  man 
and  woman). 

2.  The  union   of  two  adjectives;    as,  deaf-mute,  deaf  and 
mute,   (comp.  Germ,  taub-stumm,  Fr.  sourd-muet) ;  first-last, 
first  and  last,  (used  by  Young) ;  bitter-sweet,  bitter  and  sweet, 
the  name  of  a  plant. 

3.  The  union  of  two  numerals ;    as,  fourteen,  four  and  ten ; 
(comp.  Lat.  quatuordecim). 

4.  The   union  of  two   synonymous  or  nearly  synonymous 
words ;    as,  hap  hazard,  hap  and  hazard ;    (comp.  Germ,  ehr- 
furcht,  honor  and  fear). 

Words  of  Teutonic  origin,  of  this  class,  divide  the  accent  or 
tone  between  the  two  parts  of  the  compound ;  as,  God-man  ; 
those  of  Latin  origin  follow  the  analogy  of  English  words;  as, 
hermaphrodite. 

That  the  two  words  are  united  in  one,  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  the  latter  part  only  of  the  compound  is  capable  of 
change  by  inflection  or  derivation  ;  as,  gen.  God-man's,  plur. 
deaf-mutes,  derivative  ordinal  fourteenth,  etc. 

II.  Perfect  Composition. 

When  the  two  words  form  one  complex  idea,  then  the  com- 
position is  complete  or  perfect.  Of  this  there  are  two  kinds : 

4* 


42  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

1.  Where  the  two  parts  of  the  compound  are  in  apposition 
or  concord  with  each  other.     Here  may  be  included, 

(1.)  The  union  of  two  common  names  ;  as,  foe-man. 
(2.)  The  union  of  the  species  and  genus;  as,  oak-tree. 
(3.)  The  union  of  a  proper  name  and  the  genus;    as,  Flint 
River. 

(4.)  The  union  of  two  proper  names ;   as,  Charles  Richards. 

2.  Where  one  part  of  the  compound  stands  in  rection,  or 
government,  in  reference  to  the  other,  the  latter  part  of  the 
composition  expressing  the  principal  or  generic  idea,  and  the 
former  part  some  modification  thereof;   as,  snow-white,  steam- 
boat. 

The  modifications  to  be  expressed  by  the  former  part  of  the 
composition  are  very  numerous,  and  may  conveniently  be  ar- 
ranged as  cases  are  in  our  most  scientific  grammars  : 

(1.)  Where  the  first  term  exprssses  the  nominative  case,  or 
the  relation  of  the  subject ;  as,  cock-crowing,  the  time  at  which 
the  cocks  crow ;  slave-born,  (comp.  Anglo -Sax.  theow-boren,) 
born  a  slave. 

(2.)  Where  the  first  term  expresses  the  dative  case,  or  the 
case  of  participation ;  as,  head-band,  a  band  for  the  head,  tea- 
cup, a  cup  for  tea;  fire-brick,  a  brick  that  will  endure  the 
fire. 

(3.)  Where  the  first  term  expresses  the  accusative  case,  or 
the  relation  of  the  object ;  as,  shoe-maker,  one  that  makes  shoes ; 
wine-bibber,  one  that  drinks  much  wine ;  time-keeper,  a  machine 
that  keeps  time. 

(4.)  Where  the  first  term  expresses  the  adverbial  relation  of 
place  or  locality ;  as,  land-breeze,  a  breeze  from  the  land ;  home- 
spun, spun  at  home ;  ground-bait,  bait  for  fish  which  sinks  to 
the  bottom ;  home- speaking,  forcible  and  efficacious  speaking. 

(5.)  Where  the  first  term  expresses  the  adverbial  relation  of 
time ;  as,  night-dew,  dew  that  falls  by  night. 

(6.)  Where  the  first  term  expresses  the  adverbial  relation  of 
cause,  in  some  of  its  varieties ;  as,  moth-eaten,  eaten  by  moths ; 
steam-boat,  a  boat  moving  by  steam  ;  wind-mill,  a  mill  turned 
by  the  wind ;  straw-bed,  a  bed  made  of  straw ;  careful,  full  of 
care ;  blood-guilty,  guilty  from  blood  or  bloodshed. 

(7.)  Where  the  first  term  expresses  the  adverbial  relation  of 
intensity  or  degree;  as,  stone-blind,  blind  as  a  stone ;  snow-white, 
white  as  snow ;  snow-ivhiteness,  whiteness  like  snow ;  brand- 
new,  new  like  a  brand. 


FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS.  43 

The- same  compound  may  sometimes  belong  to  two  classes; 
as,  horse-boat,  a  boat  for  conveying  horses,  see  No.  (2.) ;  also,  a 
boat  moved  by  horses,  see  No.  (6.). 

The  first  word  has  the  form  of  the  genitive  case 

(1.)  In  some  names  of  plants ;  as,  beards-ear,  beards-foot, 
beards-wort,  cafs-foot,  cafs-head,  goafs-beard,  goafs-rue,  goafs- 
thorn,  hound1  s-tongue,  lady^s-bower,  lady^s-comb,  lady ^s-cushion, 
ladtfs-finger,  ladtf  s-mantle,  ladtfs-seal,  ladtfs-slipper,  ladtfs- 
braces,  Turtts-cap,  Turk's-head,  Turk1  s-turban,  etc. 

(2.)  In  some  names  of  minerals ;  as,  cafs-eye,  rafs-bane. 

(3.)  In  some  nautical  terms ;  as,  oafs-paw. 

(4.)  In  some  miscellaneous  examples;  as,  day's-man,  king's- 
evil,  kinsfolk,  kinsman,  kinswoman,  spokesman,  statesman,  states- 
woman. 

Sometimes  these  compounds  contain  the  remains  of  ancient 
cases ;  e.  g.  the  locative ;  as,  nightingale,  from  Teutonic  nachti- 
gall,  a  bird  that  sings  in  the  night. 

As  the  first  part  of  the  compound  modifies  the  second,  it  is 
easy  to  distinguish  between  beanpole,  a  pole  for  beans,  and 
pole-bean,  a  bean  that  grows  around  poles;  work-house,  a  house 
for  work,  and  house-work,  work  done  in  a  house ;  freight-ship, 
a  ship  for  freight,  and  ship-freight,  the  freight  carried  by  a 
ship ;  flower- gar  den,  a  garden  for  flowers,  and  garden-flower,  a 
flower  growing  in  a  garden  ;  book-shop,  a  shop  for  books,  and 
shop-book,  an  account  book;  mankind,  the  kind  or  race  of  man, 
and  kinsman,  a  man  of  the  same  race  or  family ;  chestnut-horse, 
a  horse  of  the  color  of  a  chestnut,  and  horse-chestnut,  a  large 
nut;  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  theow-weorc,  slave-work,  and  weorc- 
theow,  work-slave. 

Sometimes,  when  the  two  terms  are  in  apposition,  the  parts 
of  the  compound  may  be  inverted  without  an  essential  change 
in  the  meaning;  as,  servant-woman  and  woman-servant ;  Eng- 
lish hornpipe  and  Welsh  pibcorn ;  Anglo-Sax,  beot-word  and 
word-beot ;  German  raub-mord  and  mord-raub ;  sturm-wind 
and  wind-sturm. 

III.  Inverted  Composition. 

There  is  a  class  of  compound  words  deserving  some  atten- 
tion, in  which  the  order  of  the  terms  is  inverted  ;  as,  breakfast, 
(comp.  Anglo-Sax,  fcestenbryce,  fast-breach,  with  the  parts  of 
the  compound  in  the  natural  order)  ;  break-promise,  (an  obso- 
lete word,  for  which  we  now  use  promise-breaker) ;  break-stone, 


44  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

(obsolete,  now  stone-break,  compare  Latin  saxifragum) ;  pick- 
tooth,  (or,  more  commonly,  tooth-pick  or  tooth-picker).  This 
class  includes, 

(1.)  Trivial  names  in  botany  and  zoology;  as,  break-stone, 
(obsolete,)  catch-fly,  cut-water,  turn-stone,  wagtail. 

(2.)  Marine  terms;  as,  break-water,  cut-water. 

S3.)  Terms  used  by  printers;  as,  catch-word. 
4.)  Words  of  reproach  ;  as,  break-promise,  (obsolete,)  break- 
vow,  (obsolete,)  catc.h-poll,  cut-purse,  cut-throat,  hang-dog,  (ob- 
solete,) kill-buck,  (obsolete,)  kill-cow,  (obsolete,)  pick-lock,  pick- 
fault,  (obsolete,)  pickpocket,  pickpurse,  pick-quarrel,  (obsolete,) 
pickthank,  scape-gallows,  scape-thrift,  (obsolete,)  scare-crow, 
smell/east,  spendthrift,  telltale,  turn-coat,  turnspit,  toss-pot,  want- 
wit. 

(5.)  Miscellaneous  words ;  as,  breakfast,  (probably  used  at 
first  to  denote  a  trivial  meal,)  catch-penny,  pick-tooth. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  there  is  one  character  pervading  this 
sort  of  words. 

Note. — Words  of  this  kind  derived  from  the  French  are  more 
dignified  ;  as,  pastime,  port-folio,  portmanteau,  wardrobe. 

23.  COMPOUNDS  AND  DERIVATIVES  FROM  COMPOUNDS. 

Horse-railroad,  mail- steamboat,  railroad-depot;  man-of-war 's- 
man. 

Barefacedness,  faintheartedness,  hardheartedness,  lefthand- 
sdness,  lightheadedness,  openheartedness,  shamefacedness,  short- 
sightedness;  barefacedly,  hardheartedly,  lightheartedly,  open- 
heartedly,  shamefacedly. 

24.  DERIVATIVES  FROM  PRONOMINAL  ELEMENTS. 

We  now  return  to  the  subject  of  pronominal  elements,  of 
which  we  spoke  in  §  3. 

Besides  the  forms  which  arise  from  inflection ;  as,  me,  my, 
mine;  he,  his,  him,  her,  it  (for  hit;)  who,  what,  whose,  whom ; 
etc.  there  are  other  forms  which  arise  from  derivation  or  com- 
position. 

The  forms  which  arise  from  derivation  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

I.  Adjectives  of  preference,  which  combine  the  pronominal 
idea  with  that  of  number.  They  are  indicated  in  English  by 
the  form  of  comparatives ;  as,  other,  whether,  either,  neither. 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS.  45 

IT.  Adjectives  of  quality ;  as,  such,  which. 

III.  Adverbs  of  the  place  where ;  as,  here,  there,  where. 

IV.  Adverbs  of  the  place  whither;  as,  hither,  thither,  whither. 

V.  Adverbs  of  the  place  whence ;  as,  hence,  thence,  ivhence. 

VI.  Adverbs  of  time ;  as,  then,  when. 

VII.  Adverbs  of  manner ;  as,  so,  thus,  how. 

VIII.  Adverbs  of  the  cause  or  reason ;  as,  why. 

25.  COMPOUNDS  FROM  PRONOMINAL  ELEMENTS. 

Of  these  there  are  several  kinds. 

I.  The  adverbial  forms,  here,  there,  where,  take  to  themselves 
prepositions ;  as,  hereat,  hereby,  herein,  hereof,  hereon,  hereout, 
hereto,  herewith ;    thereat,  thereby,  therefor,  therefore,  therefrom, 
therein,  thereof,   thereon,  thereout,  thereto,   therewith;  whereat, 
whereby,  wherefore,  wherein,  whereof,  whereon,  whereto,  where- 
with. 

Also  compound  or  dissyllabic  prepositions ;  as,  hereabout, 
hereafter,  hereinto,  hereunto,  hereupon;  thereabout,  thereafter, 
thereinto,  thereunder,  thereunto,  thereupon;  whereabout,  where- 
into,  whereunto,  whereupon. 

Note. — Compositions  of  this  sort  with  dissyllabic  prepositions 
are  now  mostly  obsolete.  See  Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhet- 
oric, p.  483. 

II.  The  interrogative  or  relative  forms,  ivho,  what,  ivhich, 
where,  whither,  whence,  when,  how,  take  to  themselves  the  par- 
ticles 50  or  ever,  or  both  combined  soever,  in  order  to  form  ex- 
tended relatives  or  universal  indefinites;    as,  whoso,  whoever, 
whosoever,  whatever,  whatsoever,  whichever,  wherever,  whereso- 
ever, whithersoever,  whencesoever,  whenever,  whensoever,  however, 
howsoever. 

III.  Adverbial  forms,  as  where,  how,  sometimes  take  to  them- 
selves prefix  particles;  (1.)  some,  to  express  the  particular  indefi- 
nite;  as,  somewhere,  somewhither,  somehow;    (2.)  any,   to  ex- 
press the  general  indefinite;    as,  anyivhere,  anywhither.  any- 
how;   and  (3.)  no,  to  express  the  negative ;    as,  nowhere,  no- 
whither,  nohow.     But  these  compounds  vacillate,  being  some- 
times written  in  one  word,  and  sometimes  in  two. 

Note. — These  may  be  seen  to  better  advantage  in  the  Table 
of  English  Correlatives.  See  Appendix. 

IV.  There  are  some  other  miscellaneous  examples  which  re- 
main still  to  be  classified;  as,  heretofore,  hitherto,  hitherward, 
henceforth,  henceforward,    thitherward,    thenceforth,    thencefor- 
ward, whereas. 


46  FORMATION  OF  ENGLISH  WORDS. 

26.  WORDS  OF  UNCERTAIN  ORIGIN. 

There  remain  some  form-words,  such  as  the  prepositional 
adverbs,  in,  out,  up,  down,  fore,  back,  off,  on,  by,  with,  etc.  con- 
cerning which,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  it  is  un- 
certain whether  they  are  derived  from  pronominal  elements  or 
from  verbal  roots.  But  the  latter  is  most  probable,  see  Philol. 
Stud.  p.  79.  There  are  also  many  compounds  of  these  words; 
as,  into,  unto,  upon ;  within,  without ;  before,  but;  about,  above. 

27.   TEUTONIC  DOUBLE  FORMS  IN  ENGLISH. 

Besides  the  ordinary  modes  of  forming  words,  namely,  by 
gemination  or  reduplication,  as  sing-song;  by  internal  change 
of  vowel,  as  song ;  by  a  prefix,  as  besing,  (in  German) ;  by  a 
suffix,  as  singer ;  by  composition,  as  singing -master ;  and  by 
inflection,  as  singest ;  there  is  another  process  in  forming  words 
deserving  of  more  attention  than  has  usually  been  paid  to  it. 

The  process  alluded  to  is  the  development  of  double  forms. 
The  same  identical  word,  that  is,  the  same  root  with  the  same 
prefix  or  suffix,  or  other  modification,  sometimes  acquires  two 
forms,  to  which  in  the  course  of  time  different  meanings  are 
attached. 

This  bipartition  of  the  form  of  a  word,  or  development  of  a 
new  or  second  form,  is  sometimes  of  long  standing,  and  some- 
times of  comparatively  recent  origin.  Thus 

Eng.  Beam  and  boom  are  both  ultimately  derived  from  Goth. 
bagm-s,  a  tree ;  the  former  through  Anglo-Sax,  beam,  and  the 
latter,  as  a  marine  term,  through  Dutch  boom. 

Eng.  shell,  Anglo-Sax,  scell ;  Eng.  scale,  Anglo-Sax,  sceale, 
and  Eng.  scull ;  all  accord  in  Germ,  schale,  which  has  the 
three  meanings. 

Eng.  skiff  and  ship,  are  both  from  Goth.  skip. 

Eng.  to  swallow,  (see  supra,  p.  6.)  and  to  swill,  both  accord 
in  Anglo-Sax,  with  swelgan,  which  has  both  meanings. 

Eng.  tenth  and  tithe,  are  both  derivatives  from  Anglo-Sax. 
tyn,  ten. 

Eng.  great  and  gross,  are  the  same  Teutonic  word,  the  former 
more  allied  to  the  Saxon  and  the  latter  to  the  German  branch 
of  the  Teutonic  family. 

Eng.  pipe  and  fife,  are  the  same  Teutonic  word,  the  former 
more  allied  to  the^Saxon,  and  the  latter  to  the  German  branch 
of  the  Teutonic  family. 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH   WORDS.  4f 

Eng.  let  and  lease  are  the  same  Teutonic  word,  the  former 
more  allied  to  the  Saxon,  and  the  latter  to  the  German  branch 
of  the  Teutonic  family. 

Eng.  off  and  of  are  the  same  Teutonic  word,  but  the  former 
retains  more  of  its  original  local  sense,  the  latter  has  more  met- 
aphorical meanings. 

Eng.  too  and  to  are  the  same  Teutonic  word,  but  the  former 
has  a  more  full  emphatic  sense. 

Eng.  fore  and  for  are  the  same  Teutonic  word,  but  the 
former  is  more  limited  to  a  local  and  temporal  sense,  and  the 
latter  is  more  general. 

28.  DISGUISED  TEUTONIC  DERIVATIVES  AND  COMPOUNDS. 

Although  derivatives  and  compounds  in  English,  as  in  other 
languages,  are  usually  formed  on  regular  principles,  and  are 
easily  perceived,  some  few  of  them,  however,  especially  those 
coming  into  extensive  use,  are  so  corrupted  or  disguised  as 
greatly  to  obscure  their  origin. 

Examples. 

1.  Atone,  literally  to  be,  or  cause  to  be,  at  one,  compounded 
of  at  and  one.     Comp.  Lat.  aduno,  to  unite. 

This  origin  of  the  word  atone  is  obscured  only  in  the  pro- 
nunciation. The  numeral  has  the  same  sound  as  in  the  deriv- 
atives only  and  alone. 

2.  Daisy,  (Anglo-Sax,  dceges  ege,  day's  eye,  compounded  of 
cedges,  day's,  and  ege,  eye,)  the  name  of  a  spring  flower,  as  if 
the  eye  of  the  day. 

The  origin  of  the  word  is  obscured  by  the  accent. 

3.  Not,   a  particle  expressing  negation,  denial,  or  refusal ; 
the  same  word  as  naught  or  nought,  compounded  of  ne,  not, 
and  aught,  any  thing.    (Comp.  Old  Germ,  niowiht,  compounded 
of  ne  and  iowiht ;  Anglo-Sax,  nawiht,  compounded  of  ne  and 
awiht.) 

4.  Fortnight,  a  contraction  of  fourteen  night,  the  space  of 
fourteen  days. 

5.  Sennight,  a  contraction  of  seven  night,  the  space  of  seven 
days. 

6.  To  doff  and  to  don,  to  do  off  and  to  do  on,  expressions 
now  obsolete. 

7.  Hob  or  nob,  have  or  have  not,  a  phrase  which  has  been 
continued  in  use  on  account  of  the  paronomasia. 


APPENDIX 


IN  this  Appendix  I  propose  to  give  a  more  full  discussion  of 
several  points  which  have  been  touched  upon  in  the  preceding 
treatise.  These  discussions  have  been  written  at  different  times, 
and  have  occasionally  taken  so  wide  a  range,  that  they  could 
not  be  inserted  in  their  natural  place,  without  producing  a  de- 
gree of  complication  and  confusion.  It  is  hoped  that  they  will 
be  found  useful  as  detached  articles. 

A.    RELATION  OF  THE  TEUTONIC   PORTION   OF   THE  ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE  TO  OTHER  LANGUAGES. 

In  discussing  the  English  language,  we  have  frequent  occa- 
sion to  refer  to  other  languages  or  dialects.  It  seems  desirable 
then  that  the  reader  should  have  a  clear  apprehension  of  the 
different  tongues  thus  referred  to.  For  this  purpose  we  have 
prepared  a  summary  genealogy  of  the  English  language. 

I.  Human  Languages  generally. 

Those  who  hold  to  the  unity  of  the  human  race  hold  of 
course  to  an  original  language.  Those  who  hold  to  an  original 
language  naturally  wish  to  show  how  and  in  what  order  the 
different  families  of  languages  have  separated  themselves  from 
the  main  stock. 

Chevalier  Bunsen  and  Max  Miiller  have  been  laboring  on 
this  subject  with  great  assiduity,  and  think  to  have  arrived  at 
important  results. 

The  interesting  problem  before  them  is  this,  to  place  the  va- 
rious families  of  languages  in  the  line  of  successive  development. 

The  earliest  type  of  language  is  supposed  to  have  been  mon- 
osyllabic. Many  substantial  reasons  might  be  given,  in  favor 
of  this  supposition. 


50  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

The  Chinese  and  other  monosyllabic  languages  of  Asia  went 
off  from  the  main  stock,  while  it  was  yet  in  a  rude  or  inorganic 
state.  These  languages  hare  been  called  family  languages. 
Some  cause,  to  us  unknown,  seems  to  have  stereotyped  these 
languages  in  this  early  stage  of  their  existence,  and  to  have 
prevented  their  further  development. 

At  a  subsequent  period,  when  the  main  stock  had  assumed 
somewhat  of  an  organic  character,  the  Tartar  or  Turanian  lan- 
guages detached  themselves  on  one  side,  and  the  Hamitic,  or 
language  of  Egypt,  on  the  other;  the  former  with  a  slight 
tincture  of  Iranianism,  or  tendency  to  the  Indo-European  char- 
acter, and  the  latter  with  a  tincture  of  Shemitism.  These  lan- 
guages are  called  nomad  languages,  as  having  advanced  far- 
ther than  the  family  languages. 

At  a  still  later  period  the  Shemitish  and  Iranian  or  Indo- 
European  languages  developed  themselves  in  opposite  directions. 
These  are  called  political  or  state  languages,  as  exhibiting  the 
highest  degree  of  refinement.  But  although  thus  contrasted, 
they  exhibit,  when  viewed  from  a  more  distant  stand-point, 
many  undoubted  resemblances. 

To  complete  this  view,  the  languages  of  America  and  Ocean- 
ica  are  thought  to  be  connected  with  the  Turanian ;  and  the 
African  are  united  conjecturally  for  the  present  with  the  Ham- 
itic or  Coptic,  and  perhaps  far  southward  with  the  Turanian. 

II.  The  Indo-European  Class  of  Languages. 

The  term  Indo-European  Languages  is  beginning  to  be  used 
with  scientific  exactness.  The  general  reader  should  be  ac- 
quainted with  this  fact. 

1.  The   Indo-European   languages  are  inflected   languages, 
that  is,  the  exponent  of  the  idea  (the  root)  and  the  exponent  of 
the  relation   (the  inflection)   are  closely  compacted  into  one 
word.     Compare,  for  example,  Lat.  regi,  to  the  king ;  amabo,  I 
shall  love.     This  makes  a  marked  distinction  between  these  and 
the  monosyllabic  languages,  which  have  no  inflection.     In  the 
latter  languages,  for  example,  in  Chinese,  the  relations  of  the 
words  or  ideas  are  denoted  solely  by  their  location. 

2.  The  Indo-European  languages,  as  inflected  languages,  are 
again  to  be  distinguished  from  the  agglutinated   languages, 
where  the  relations  are  denoted  by  separate  words  which  have 
not  yet  acquired  the  nature  of  inflections. 


APPENDIX.  51 

3.  The  Shemitish  languages  are  also  inflected  languages. 
But  the  roots  and  inflections  of  the  Indo-European  languages 
have  a  remarkable  coincidence  with  each  other,  which  they 
have  not  with  those  of  the  Shemitish  languages. 

4.  Many  Indo-European  languages,  however,  in  their  mo- 
dern or  disintegrated  form,  have  lost  the  inflections  which  they 
originally  possessed. 

5.  The  Indo-European  class  or  stock  of  languages  consists  of 
eight  groups  or  families,  viz. 

(1.)  The  Sanskrit  or  Indian  family.  The  most  ancient  type 
of  this  family  is  found  in  the  Sanskrit  of  the  hymns  of  the  Vedas. 

(2.)  The  Iranian  or  Persian  family.  We  have  two  ancient 
representatives  of  this  family,  the  Avestan  or  language  of  the 
Zend  Avesta,  and  the  Old  Persian,  or  language  of  the  Achse- 
menian  cuneiform  inscriptions. 

(3.)  The  Greek  family,  including  the  ancient  and  modern 
Greek. 

(4.)  The  Latin  family,  including  Latin  and  the  derived  lan- 
guages. 

(5.)  The  Slavic  family,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Europe.  The 
oldest  type  of  this  family  is  the  Old  Slavic  or  Church  Slavic 
of  the  eleventh  century. 

(6.)  The  Lithuanian  family,  embracing  the  proper  Lithuan- 
ian, the  Old  Prussian,  and  the  Lettish. 

(7.)  The  Teutonic  or  Gothic  family.  Its  most  ancient  type 
is  the  Moeso-Gothic  of  Ulphilas'  Version  of  the  Bible. 

(8.)  The  Celtic  family,  in  its  two  branches,  the  Cymric  and 
the  Gaelic. 

III.  The  Teutonic  Family  of  Languages. 

The  Teutonic  or  Gothic  family  of  languages  is  interesting  to 
us,  as  embracing  the  English,  our  vernacular  tongue,  and  as 
consisting  of  languages  which  have  been  the  object  of  thorough 
examination. 

1.  The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Teutonic  lan- 
guages are  the  following : 

(1.)  The  ablaut  or  change  of  radical  vowel  in  the  conjuga- 
tion of  the  so-called  strong  verbs ;  as  in  English,  pres.  swim, 
past  swam,  past  participle  swum.  Comp.  as  somewhat  anal- 
ogous in  Greek,  pres.  TQBHCO,  2  aor.  erganov,  2  perf.  -ihgoTta;  and 
in  Latin,  pres.  ago,  perf.  egi. 


52  FORMATION    OP   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

(2.)  In  the  rotation  of  mute  consonant-sounds  of  the  same 
organ,  according  to  Grimm's  famous  law,  we  find  the  Teutonic 
languages  to  have  advanced,  part  of  them  one,  and  part  of 
them  two  steps,  from  the  other  Indo'-European  families,  as  the 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Latin.  Thus  Lat.  tu,  Goth,  thu,  Germ,  du, 
thou.  This  change  affects  the  most  ancient  portion  of  the  Teu- 
tonic languages,  or  that  part  which  they  have  in  common  with 
the  other  Indo-European  families. 

(3.)  The  weak  conjugation  of  verbs,  which  forms  the  past 
tense  by  means  of  a  suffix,  abridged  from  an  auxiliary  verb 
signifying  "to  do;"  as  in  English,  pres.  love,  past  loved,  past 
participle  loved. 

(4.)  The  weak  declension  of  nouns,  by  means  of  a  pronomi- 
nal suffix.  Thus  Anglo-Sax,  nom.  hana,  gen.  hanan,  dat.  hanan, 
accus.  hanan,  a  cock.  The  weak  declension  has  disappeared 
in  English. 

2.  Besides  cultivated  national  languages,  as  German,  English, 
etc.,  the  Teutonic  family  includes  ancient  dialects,  preserved 
only  in  ancient  monuments,  as  Mceso-Gothic,  Anglo-Saxon,  etc., 
and  provincial  dialects,  as  Suabian,  Norwegian,  etc. 

There  are  three  branches  of  the  Teutonic  family  clearly  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other,  namely,  the  Saxon  or  Low  German, 
the  High  German,  and  the  Scandinavian  branch. 

( 1 .)  The  Saxon  or  Low  German  branch  differs  from  the  High 
German  branch  in  having  shifted  only  one  step,  in  the  rotatory 
scale  of  mute  consonant-sounds  from  the  older  Indo-European 
languages ;  and  it  differs  from  the  Scandinavian  branch  in  hav- 
ing neither  a  suffix  article,  nor  a  special  form  for  the  passive 
voice. 

(2.)  The  High  German  branch  has  preserved  the  ancient  in- 
strumental case  which  is  lost  even  in  the  Mceso-Gothic;  has 
shifted  two  steps,  in  the  rotatory  scale  of  mute  consonant-sounds 
from  the  older  Indo-European  languages;  and  has  neither  a 
suffix  article,  nor  a  special  form  for  the  passive  voice.  It  is 
distinguished  also  by  what  the  Germans  call  umlaut,  an  attenu- 
ation of  vowel-sound,  and  brechung,  a  breaking  up  of  the  regu- 
lar diphthongs.  Here  belongs  the  High-German,  in  the  three 
forms  of  Old  High-German,  from  the  7th  to  the  llth  century, 
Middle  High-German,  from  the  12th  century  to  Luther,  and 
New  High-German,  since  Luther,  the  literary  language  of  Ger- 
many. 


APPENDIX.  00 

(3.)  The  Scandinavian  branch  is  distinguished  by  a  suffix 
article,  and  a  special  form  for  the  passive  voice.  Here  belong 
the  Icelandic  or  Old  Norse,  the  Danish,  Swedish,  etc. 

IV.  Languages  of  the  Saxon  or  Low-German  Branch  of  the 
Teutonic  Family. 

This  branch,  to  which  our  own  language  belongs,  includes 

(1.)  The  Mceso- Gothic,  preserved  in  the  fragments  of  Ulphi- 
las'  Bible  version,  made  in  the  fourth  century.  This  is  the 
oldest  type  or  form  of  the  Teutonic  family  of  languages,  and 
preserves  the  old  inflections  in  full  vigor.  It  has  first  given 
consistency  to  the  history  and  development  of  the  Teutonic 
languages. 

(2.)  The  Ancient  and  Modern  Dutch  or  Netherlandish.  The 
oldest  specimen  of  Dutch  is  from  about  the  year  800. 

(3.)  The  Old  Saxon,  preserved  in  literary  monuments  from 
the  ninth  century  downward.  The  oldest  specimen  is  Heliand, 
a  poem,  to  which  we  are  principally  indebted  for  our  knowledge 
of  this  dialect. 

(4.)  The  Ancient  and  Modern  Friesic,  preserved  in  monu- 
ments from  about  the  year  1200.  The  Old  Friesic  approached 
very  near  to  the  Anglo-Saxon.  It  is  now  on  the  eve  of  extinc- 
tion. The  Altfriesisches  Worterbuch,  published  by  Dr.  Karl  von 
Richthofen,  (Gotting.  1840.  4to.)  is  an  inexhaustible  source 
for  illustrating  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old  English.  It  has  only 
begun,  however,  to  be  used  for  this  purpose  by  our  gramma- 
rians and  lexicographers. 

(5.)  The  Anglo-Saxon,  with  important  literary  remains  from 
the  sixth  century  down.  The  oldest  specimen  is  supposed  to 
be  the  Laws  of  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent. 

The  English  language,  so  far  as  the  Teutonic  portion  of  it 
is  concerned,  is  derived  immediately  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and 
has  that  language  for  its  basis.  It  retains  less  of  the  inflection 
of  the  ancient  language  than  any  other  Teutonic  dialect. 

(6.)  Various  Low-German  provincial  dialects  on  the  south- 
ern shore  of  the  Baltic,  too  numerous  to  mention. 

V.  Anglo-Saxon,  English,  and  Connected  Dialects. 

The  relation  of  the  present  English  language  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  is  that  of  a  modern  language  to  an  ancient  one. 
5* 


54  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

The  different  stages  of  the  English  language,  taken  in  its 
widest  extent,  are  constituted  thus  by  the  latest  writers  on  the 
subject : 

Anglo-Saxon,  from  the  Conquest  of  England,  by  the  Saxons 
and  Angles,  to  the  year  1150. 

Semi- Saxon,  from  the  year  1150  to  1250. 

Old  English,  from  the  year  1250  to  1350. 

Middle  English,  from  the  year  1350  to  1550. 

Modern  English,  from  the  year  1550  to  the  present  time. 

There  has  been  an  uniform  tendency,  from  the  first,  to  di- 
minish the  number  of  grammatical  inflections. 

The  Provincial  dialects  have  existed  collaterally  with  the 
Anglo-Saxon  and  English,  and  have  been  derived  from  a  differ- 
ent fusion  of  the  Teutonic  races  with  the  Norman  French.  The 
principal  of  these  dialects  are  the  Lowland  Scotch,  of  which 
John  Jamieson  (Edin.  1808-1825.)  has  given  us  an  excellent 
dictionary;  the  Cumberland,  Yorkshire,  Suffolk,  Kent,  Sussex, 
and  Devonshire.  Specimens  of  these  dialects  may  be  found  in 
Fowler's  Eng.  Gram.  Ed.  II. 

The  Cockney  dialect  is  not  a  proper  dialect.  It  is  merely  a 
rude  attempt  of  the  uncultivated  class  to  catch  the  words,  as 
well  as  they  could,  derived  from  the  more  refined  languages, 
as  Norman  French,  Latin,  and  Greek.  See  Fowler's  Eng.  Gram. 
Ed.  II.  p.  116. 

The  Americanisms,  so  called,  do  not  constitute  a  dialect. 
They  are  merely  a  convenient  assemblage  of  special  usages  in 
different  portions  of  a  widely  extended  country,  which  are  no 
where  adopted  en  masse.  See  Fowler's  Eng.  Gram.  Ed.  II.  p. 
120.  Worcester's  Quarto  Diet.  Introd.  p.  LII. 

The  diction  of  King  James"1  Bible  has  many  peculiarities 
which  are  worthy  of  the  attention  of  a  literary  man.  See  New- 
Englander,  May,  1859.  But  it  has  no  claim  to  be  regarded  as 
a  distinct  dialect. 


Following  out  these  investigations,  we  come  to  the  conclusion 
adopted  on  page  5,  supra,  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  an  older  form  of  English ;  the  Moeso-Gothic,  as  an 
older  form  of  Anglo-Saxon ;  and  what  is  common  to  Sanskrit, 
Greek,  and  Latin,  as  exhibiting  the  still  older  language. 


APPENDIX. 

^ 

Of 


B.    ADVERBS  WITH  Loss  OF  SUFFIX^- 
(Comp.  §  10.  II.) 

In  Anglo-Saxon,  (which  for  our  present  purpose  may  be  re- 
garded as  ancient  English,  or  the  language  of  our  ancestors,) 
the  adverb  was  usually  formed  from  the  adjective  by  the  addi- 
tion of  e  ;  as,  georn  and  geornlic,  earnest ;  georne  and  geornlice, 
earnestly;  sweotol,  manifest;  sweotole  and  sweotolice,  mani- 
festly ;  swidh  and  swidhlic,  great ;  swidhe  and  swidhlice,  greatly. 

It  is  exactly  by  dropping  this  adverbial  termination  e,  espe- 
cially where  the  connection  in  meaning  of  the  adverb  and  of 
the  adjective  is  not  immediately  obvious,  that  in  English  many 
adverbs  are  found  agreeing  in  form  with  the  adjectives  from 
which  they  are  derived ;  as, 

1.  Anglo-Sax,  clcen,  adj.  and  clane,  adv.      Whence  Eng. 
clean,  adj.  and  adv.     The  use  of  the  adverb  clean,  signifying 
*  entirely,'  is  found  Josh.  3  :  17.   Ps.  77  :  8.  etc.     Its  connec- 
tion with  the  adjective  clean,  signifying  '  pure,'  is  not  obvious 
at  first  view.     This  use  of  the  adverb  clean  is  now  deemed  in- 
elegant.    The  form  cleanly  is  used  for  the  adverb  in  the  more 
obvious  senses. 

2.  Anglo-Sax,  clanlic,  adj.  and  clcenlice,  adv.    Whence  Eng. 
cleanly,  adj.  and  adv.     The  form  cleanlily  is  objectionable  on 
euphonic  grounds,  and  is  not  now  used. 

3.  Anglo-Sax,  fcest  and  fcestlic,  adj.  and  fceste  and  fcestlice, 
adv.  Germ.fest,  adj.  and  fast,  adv.     Whence  Eng.  fast,  adj.  and 
adv.     The  formfastly  is  used  in  the  more  obvious  sense. 

4.  Anglo-Sax,  aelic,  adj.  and  gelice,  adv.     Whence  Eng.  alike, 
adj.  and  adv.     The  form  alikely  is  not  used. 

5.  Anglo-Sax,  heag  and  healic,  adj.  and  heage  and  healice,  adv. 
Whence  Eng.  high,  adj.  and  adv.     The  form  high  as  an  adverb 
is  now  nearly  superseded  by  the  form  highly. 

6.  Anglo-Sax,  heard  and  heardlic,  adj.  and  hearde  and  heard- 
lice,  adv.     Whence  Eng.  hard,  adj.  and  adv.     The  forms  hard 
and  hardly  are  both  used  as  adverbs,  but  with  discrimination. 

7.  Anglo-Sax,  hlud,  adj.  and  hlydde,  adv.     Whence  Eng. 
loud,  adj.  and  adv.     The  form  loud  as  an  adverb  is  found  Neh. 
12  :  42.     The  form  loudly  is  also  used. 

8.  Anglo-Sax,  lang  or  long,  adj.  and  lange  or  longe  and  long- 
lice,  adv.     Whence  Eng.  long,  adj.  and  adv.     The  form  longly 
has  been  used  by  Shakspeare  in  a  peculiar  sense. 


5*6  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

9.  Anglo-Sax.  Icet  or  lat,  adj.  and  Icete  or  late  and  Icetlice, 
adv.     Whence  Eng.  late,  adj.  and  adv.     The  form  lately  is  also 
used,  having  the  sense  of  recently. 

10.  Anglo-Sax,  riht  and  rihtlic,  adj.  and  rihte  and  rihtlice, 
adv.     Whence  Eng.  right,  adj.  and  adv.     The  forms  right  and 
rightly  are  both  used  as  adverbs,  but  with  discrimination. 

11.  Anglo-Sax,  sar  and  sarlic,  adj.  and  sare  and  sarlice,  adv. 
Whence  Eng.  sore,  adj.  and  adv.     The  forms  sore  and  sorely  are 
now  both  used  as  adverbs. 

12.  Anglo-Sax,  seft  or  sq/2  and  seftlic,  adj.  and  se/fo  or  so/te, 
adv.     Whence  Eng.  soft,  adj.  and  adv.     The  form  soft  as  an 
adverb  is  found  in  poetry,  which  often  employs  antiquated 
forms ;  as,  "  And  soft  unto  himself  he  sayed." — Chaucer.    u  Soft 
sighed  the  flute." — Thomson.     But  this  form  in  prose  is  super- 
seded by  softly. 

13.  Anglo-Sax,  thic,  adj.  and  thicce  and  thiclice,  adv.   Whence 
Eng.  thick,  adj.  and  adv.     The  forms  thick  and  thickly  are  now 
both  used  as  adverbs. 

14.  Anglo-Sax,  wid,  adj.  and  wide,  adv.     Whence  Eng.  wide, 
adj.  and  adv.     The  forms  wide  and  widely  are  now  both  used 
as  adverbs. 

15.  Anglo-Sax,  yfel  and  yfellic,  adj.  and  yfele,  adv.     Whence 
Eng.  evil  or  ill,  adj.  and  adv.     The  form  evilly  or  illy,  which 
was  used  in  one  stage  of  the  English  language,  is  now  obsolete. 

16.  Anglo-Sax,  hrced  and  hrcedlic,  adj.  hrcedhe  and  hrcedlice, 
adv.     Whence  Eng.  rath,  adj.  and  adv.     Both  these  uses  of 
rath  are  now  obsolete ;  but  rather,  the  comparative  form  of  the 
adverb,  is  still  in  full  use. 

That  this  mode  of  forming  adverbs  has  extended  itself  to  a 
few  adjectives  of  French  or  Latin  origin,  is  not  surprising ;  as, 
Eng.  clear )  adj.  and  adv.  (comp.  Fr.  clair,  Lat.  clarus  and  dare) ; 
just,  adj.  and  adv.  (comp.  Fr.  juste,  Lat.  Justus  andjiiste). 

These  comparisons,  if  rightly  made,  lead  to  the  following 
conclusions,  which  throw  light  on  some  points  still  mooted  by 
writers  on  English  grammar : 

1.  In  examples  like  the  following,  certain  forms,  which  some 
have  claimed  to  be  adjectives,  are  really  adverbs,  for  they  once 
had  the  termination  peculiar  to  this  class  of  words  : 

"  To  stick  fast  in  mire ;"  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  sticodefceste,  stuck 
fast,  with  the  adverbial  termination. 

"  Correct  thy  heart,  and  all  will  go  right ;"  comp.  Anglo- 
Sax,  rihte,  with  the  adverbial  termination. 


APPENDIX.  6 

"Favors  came  thick  upon  him;"  comp.  Anglo-Sax. feollon 
thicce,  fell  thick,  with  the  adverbial  termination. 

"  Open  thine  hand  wide  ;"  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  wide,  with  the 
adverbial  termination. 

2.  This  use  of  certain  adjectives  without  change  of  form,  as 
adverbs,  has  descended  to  us  fairly  from  our  ancestors,  and  is 
not  to  be  reprobated  as  an  innovation  in  language,  arising  from 
the  careless  omission  of  the  suffix  ly. 

3.  The  apparent  poetic  use  of  adjectives  for  adverbs  may  be 
explained  on  the  principle  that  the  poets  delight  in  antique 
forms.     This  use  is  often  found  in  poetry,  where  it  is  obsolete 
in  prose ;  as, 

"  Drink  deep  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring." — POPE. 

"  Soft  sighed  the  flute." — THOMSON. 

"  Slow  tolls  the  village  clock." — BEATTIE. 

"  Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene." — GRAY. 

This  article  was  published  in  Prof.  Fowler's  English  Gram- 
mar, Ed.  II.  (1855.)  p.  362,  but  has  now  been  revised  and  cor- 
rected. 

This  revision,  made  by  the  aid  of  the  new  editions  of  Web- 
ster's and  Worcester's  Dictionaries,  will  enable  the  reader  to 
correct  what  is  said  supra,  §  10.  II.  p.  14,  15,  that  fast  and 
long  have  never  adopted  the  suffix  ly. 

C.  REDUPLICATE  FORMS  IN  ENGLISH. 
(Comp.  §  10.  IV). 

The  following  words,  on  account  of  the  important  philological 
principles  which  may  be  deduced  from  them,  deserve  more  at- 
tention than  they  have  usually  received : 

1.  JBibble-babble,  idle  talk,  senseless   prattle ;    from  babble, 
idem,  (comp.  Fr.  babbiller,  Dutch  babbelen,  to  talk  idly.) 

I  wel  may  and  will  cutte  of  all  his  bibble  babbel. — Sir  T. 
MORE. 

Malvolio,  Malvolio  !  thy  wittes  the  heavens  restore,  endeavor 
thy  selfe  to  sleepe,  and  leave  thy  vaine  bibble-babble. — SHAKSP. 

2.  Chit-chat,  idle  or  familiar  talk ;  from  chat,  idem. 

I  am  a  member  of  a  female  society,  who  call  ourselves  the 
chit-chat  club. — SPECT.  No.  560. 

Look'd — just  as  coxcombs  look  on  earth  ; 
Then  raised  his  chin,  then  cock'd  his  hat, 
TO  grace  this  common-place  chit-chat. 

MALLET,  "  Cupid  and  Hymen," 


58  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

3.  Ding-dong,  the  repetition  of  a  stroke ;  the  sound  of  a  bell ; 
from  ding,  to  knock  or  beat  with  violence. 

In  this  regioun  is  ane  carnell  of  stanis  Hand  togiddir  in  maner 
of  ane  crown,  and  ryngis  (quhen  thay  ar  doung)  as  ane  bell. — 
BELLENDEN,  Desc.  Alb. 

They  went  to  fighting  ding-dong. — Sir  J.  STODDART. 

Let  us  all  ring  Fancy's  knell, 

Ding,  Dong,  bell !    '  SHAKSP. 

4.  Dingle-dangle,  a  swinging  or  oscillating  motion ;  from 
dangle,  to  hang  loose. 

He'd  rather  on  a  gibbet  dangle. — BUTLER,  Hudibras. 
I  shall  see  thee  go  off,  just  at  twelve  o'clock,  dingle-dangle. — 
A  Modern  Comedy. 

5.  Fiddle-faddle,  trifling;  from  fiddle,  to  trifle. 

Those  degenerate  arts  and  shifts  deserve  no  better  name  than 
fiddling. — BACON,  on  Learning. 

With  abundance  of  fiddle-faddle  of  the  same  nature. — SPECT. 
No.  229. 

She  was  a  troublesome,  fiddle-faddle,  old  woman. — ARBUTH- 
NOT. 

6.  Flim-flam,  a  freak;  a  trick;  from  flam,  idem. 
This  is  a  pretty  flim-flam. — BEAUM.  and  FLETCHER. 

7.  Gew-gaw,  a  bauble;  (comp.  ^T.JOUJOU,  a  play-thing.) 
A  heavy  gew-gaw  called  a  crown. — DRYDEN. 

8.  Gibble-gabble,  noisy  conversation;  from  gabble,  idem. — 
BONIF.  Fr.  Diet, 

9.  Giffe-gaffe,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  gifan,  to  give.) 
Somewhat  was  geven  to  them  before,  and  they  must  neades 

geve  somewhat  againe ;  for  giffe- gaffe  was  a  good  felow. — Bp. 
LATIMER,  1562. 

10.  Knick-knack,  a  toy ;  from  knack,  idem. 

But  if  ye  use  these  knick-knacks. — BEAUM.  and  FLETCHER. 

11.  Mish-mash,  a  medley,  a  heap  of  things  thrown  togeth- 
er ;  from  mash,  idem. — Sir  T.  HERBERT. 

12.  Pit-a-pat  or  apitpat,  in  a  flutter;  from  pat,  to  beat  or 
tap. 

And  the  ratling  pitpat  noyse. — B.  JONSON. 
The  pit-a-pat  of  two  young  hearts. — DRYDEN. 

13.  Prittle-prattle,  idle  talk;  from  prattle,  idem. 

There  arose  a  new  stir  in  Rome  immediately,  and  every 
man's  mouth  was  full  of  prittle-prattle  and  seditious  words. — 
NORTH'S  Plutarch, 


APPENDIX.  59 

14.  Riff-raff,  sweepings,  refuse;  from  raff,  idem. 
The  riff-raff  of  their  age. — Lord  CROMWELL. 

15.  See-saw,  a  vibratory  motion;  from  to  saw. 
His  wit  all  see-saw  between  this  and  that. — POPE. 

16.  Shilly-shally,  irresolution  ;  probably  from  shall  I? 

Bob  did  not  shilly-shally  go, 

Nor  said  one  word  of  friend  or  foe. 

KING  :  "  The  Eagle  and  the  Robin." 

17.  Sing-song,  bad  singing ;  monotony;  from  song. 

18.  Skimble-skamble,  wandering,  disorderly;  from  scamble, 
to  stir  quick. 

A  couching  lion  and  a  ramping  cat, 

And  such  a  deal  of  skimble-skamble  stuff, 

As  puts  me  from  my  faith.  SHAKSP. 

19.  Slip-slop,  bad  liquor;  from  slop,  idem. 

20.  Snip-snap,  tart  dialogue  with  quick  replies ;  from  snap, 
to  answer  quickly. 

Dennis  and  dissonance,  and  captious  art, 

And  snip-snap  short,  and  interruption  smart.     POPE. 

21.  Tick-tack,  the  noise  of  a  .blacksmith's  shop ;  also  a  game 
at  tables;  from  tick,  to  beat,  to  pat. — MILTON.* 

22.  Tittle-tattle,  empty  babble ;  from  tattle,  idem. 

Of  every  idle  tittle-tattle  that  went  about,  Jack  was  suspect- 
ed for  the  author. — ARBUTHNOT. 

23.  Twittte-twattle,  idle  talk  ;  from  twattle,  idem. 

All  that  ever  he  did  was  not  worth  so  much  as  the  twittle- 
twattle  that  he  maketh. — HOLLAND. 

24.  Whim-wham,  a  freak,  fancy ;  from  whim,  idem. 

25.  Zig-zag,  with  short  turns  or  angles ;  (comp.  Germ,  zacken, 
.  jagg,  a  point.) 

A  few  others  might  be  added ;  as  click-clack,  a  plaything 
with  which  a  clacking  is  made ;  crincum-crancum,  winding 
round,  as  a  crooked  path;  crick-crack,  the  noise  of  a  thing 
cracking;  dilly-dally,  to  trifle  away  time;  mingle-mangle,  a 
medley  ;  pintle-pantle  or  pintledy-pantledy,  in  a  flutter ;  shim- 
sham,  foolery. 

Remarks  on  the  preceding  Words. 

1.  These  words  are  proper  reduplicate  forms.  They  are  not 
compounded  of  two  distinct  words,  but  they  are  formed  by 


60  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

iterating  or  repeating  the  same  word.  It  is  an  error  to  sup- 
pose that  each  part  of  the.  composition  has  a  distinct  signifi- 
cancy.  Yet  S.  Skinner  would  connect  fiddle-faddle  with  Fr. 
fade  or  Lat.fatuus,  foolish,  as  if  the  compound  meant  fiddle- 
foolish;  C.  Richardson  would  connect  chit-chat  with  chit,  a 
child,  as  if  the  compound  meant  childish-chat;  and  another 
distinguished  philologist  would  connect  see-saw  with  sea,  as  if 
the  compound  meant  the  sawing  of  the  sea. 

2.  The  change  of  vowel  evidently  depends  on  a  regular 
euphonic  law.     The  short  vowel  in  the  first  part  is  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  fuller  sound  in  the  second.     This  renders  the  whole 
word  melodious  and  expressive.     Tt  is  improper  to  call  this 
change  of  vowel  a  corruption,  or  to  seek  in  it  for  any  peculiar 
significancy.     Yet  Dr.  Johnson  calls  chit-chat  a  corruption  of 
chat-chat ;  J.  Thomson'  calls  chit  a  diminutive  of  chat ;   and 
Stoddart  makes  pit  a  diminutive  of  pat. 

3.  These  words  illustrate  an  important  formative  principle 
in  language.     They  are  not  formed  by  internal  inflection,  that 
is,  by  a  change  of  vowel  within  the  root  itself;  as  band  or  bond 
from  bind  ;  nor  by  derivation  ;  as  bondage  from  bond  ;  nor  by 
composition  of  two  words ;  as  bondman  from  bond  and  man  ; 
but  by  a  peculiar  process.     This  principle  in  the  formation  of 
language  has  its  natural  place  after  internal  inflection,  and  be- 
fore derivation. 

4.  This  mode  of  forming  words,  consisting  in  a  mechanical 
repetition  of  the  same  sound,  is  naturally  adapted  to  express 
(1.)  the  continuous  flow  of  conversation  ;  as  bibble-babble,  chit- 
chat, gibble-gabble,  prittle-prattle,  snip-snap,  tittle-tattle,  twittle- 
twattle ;   (2.)  other  constant  and   repeated  sounds;   as,  click- 
clack,  crick-crack,  ding-dong,  sing-song,  tick-tack ;  (3.)  certain 
oscillatory  motions ;  as  crincum-crancum,  dingle-dangle,  pintle- 
pantle,  pit-a-pat,  see-saiv,  zig-zag;  (4.)  certain  mental  fluctua- 
tions or  oscillations;  as  dilly-dally,  fiddle-faddle,  flim-flam, 
gew-gaw,  yiffe-gaffe,  knick-knack,  shilly-shally,  shim-sham,  whim- 
wham  ;  and  (5.)  some  miscellaneous  things  involving  the  idea 
of  repetition  ;  as  mish-mash,  mingle-mangle,  riff-raff,  skimble- 
skamble,  slip-slop. 

5.  These  are  favorite  formations  with  most  of  the  Teutonic 
nations,  particularly  with  the  common  people.     Thus  we  have : 

Germ,  fickfacken,  to  play  tricks ;  klingklang,  a  jingle ;  misch- 
masch  ;  singsang  ;  schnickschnack,  idle  talk ;  tick-tack,  in  a  flut- 
ter ;  wirrwarr,  confusion  ;  wischivasch,  idle  talk ;  zickzack. 


APPENDIX.  61 

Low  Sax.  fakfacken ;  hinkhanken,  to  hobble  about;  mish- 
mash ;  ticktacken,  to  touch  gently  and  often ;  tiesketauske ; 
titeltateln  ;  wibbelwabbeln ;  wirrwarr,  confusion ;  zieskezaaske. 

Dan.  miskmask ;  sniksnak ;  trictrac,  a  game  at  tables. 

Swed.  miskmask ;  sicksack ;  wilier iv alia,  confusion. 

Scott,  click-clack,  uninterrupted  loquacity,  (comp.  Eng.  clack, 
to  let  the  tongue  run  ;)  dish- clash,  idle  talk,  from  clash,  idem ; 
clitter- clatter,  idle  talk,  from  clatter,  idem ;  fiery-fary,  bustle, 
confusion,  fromjiery  ov/ary,  idem  -,fike-facks,  humors,  whims, 
from  fike,  to  be  inconstant ;  fix-fax,  hurry,  perhaps  from  the 
same ;  tig-lag,  a  confused  noise  of  tongues,  perhaps  a  softening 
of  click- clack ;  mixtie-maxtie,  or  mixie-maxie,  in  a  state  of 
confusion ;  niff-naffs,  trifles ;  nignayes  or  nignyes,  whims,  tri- 
fles ;  whiltie-whaltie,  in  a  state  of  palpitation. 

Also  Fr.  criccrac,  noise  of  a  thing  cracking ;  micmac,  in- 
trigues ;  trictrac,  a  game  at  tables ;  zig-zag. 

6.  Besides  these  examples  which  have  a  play  of  vowels,  pro- 
ducing an  alliteration,  we  have  another  class  which  have  a  play 
of  consonants,  producing  a  sort  of  rhyme ;  as  handy -dandy,  a 
play  in  which  children  change  hands  and  places;  harum-scarum 
or  harum-starum,  flighty ;  higgledy-piggledy,  confusedly ;  hod- 
dy-doddy,  a  foolish  fellow;  hoity-toity,  an  interjection  of  sur- 
prise; hugger-mugger,  secretly;  hum-drum,  &  stupid  fellow; 
hurly-burly,  confusion ;  hurdy-gurdy,  a  kind  of  stringed  in- 
strument ;  hurry-skurry,  confusedly  ;  namby-pamby,  having  lit- 
tle affected  prettinesses ;  pell-mell,  confusedly ;  pick-nick,  a  club 
in  which  each  one  contributes  to  the  entertainment;  slang- 
whanger,  a  noisy  talker  of  slang,  according  to  Dr.  Pickering  a 
recent  Americanism;  topsy-turvy,  with  the  bottom  upward. 
It  is  remarkable  how  large  a  proportion  of  these  words  begin 
with  h. 

7.  So  great  has  been  the  attachment  to  these  two  formations, 
that  they  have  been  sometimes  adopted  much  to  the  disfigure- 
ment of  the  original  word ;  as  criss-cross,  for  Christ' }s  cross ; 
helter-skelter,  for  the  Latin  phrase  hilariter  et  celeriter ;  hocus- 
pocus,  for  the  Latin  sentence  hoc  est  corpus  meum ;  hodge- 
podge, or  hotch-potch,  for  the  French  compound  hoche-pot ; 
tag-rag  for  tag  and  rag ;  whipper-snapper  for  whip-snapper. 

8.  Words  of  these  formations  are  often  stigmatized  as  cant 
terms,  or  as  being  familiar,  trivial,  low,  base,  vulgar.     The  facts 
of  the  case  appear  to  be  these.     The  mode  of  formation  by  re- 
duplication is  unobjectionable  in  itself.     It  is  one  which  lies  at 

6 


62  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH   WORDS. 

the  foundation  of  languages,  classic  as  well  as  others.  As  con- 
nected with  a  play  of  vowels  or  of  consonants,  it  is  used  exten- 
sively, as  we  have  seen,  among  the  Teutonic  nations.  Some  of 
the  words  certainly  are  not  inelegant.  As  a  class  they  are 
forcible  and  impressive,  and  orators  occasionally  use  them  with 
great  effect.  But  as  these  words  are  a  part  of  our  Anglo-Saxon 
inheritance,  as  they  express  some  of  the  ruder  passions  of  the 
soul,  and  as  they  rest  more  or  less  on  the  adventitious  aid  of 
alliteration  and  rhyme,  our  rhetoricians,  and  those  who  lay 
claim  to  a  refined  taste,  have  generally  been  disposed  to  reject 
them  from  the  higher  kinds  of  writing. 
Nov.  1842. 

D.    THE  ENGLISH  ADJECTIVE  SUFFIX  en. 
(Comp.  §  13.  II.) 

The  English  suffix  en,  (Goth,  ein,  Old  Germ,  in,  Germ. 
Dutch,  Swed.  Dan.  and  Anglo-Sax,  en;  compare  Lat.  inus,)  is 
attached  to  words  of  Teutonic  origin,  and  forms  hylonymic  ad- 
jectives, or  adjectives  expressing  the  material  of  which  a  thing 
is  made.  Thus  it  is  joined 

1 .  To  names  of  metals  and  minerals ;   as,    brazen  (from 
brass  ;)  earthen ;  golden ;  leaden. 

2.  To  names  of  trees  and  plants ;  as,  ashen  ;  beechen ;  birch- 
en ;  boxen ;  flaxen ;  hempen  ;  linen,  (from  Anglo-Sax,  lin,  flax ;) 
oaken  ;  wooden  ;  yewen. 

3.  To  names  of  grain ;  as,  oaten,  wheaten. 

4.  To  miscellaneous  names  of  the  material ;    as,   milken ; 
silken;  threaden;  waxen;  woollen;  also  leathern. 

Compare  Anglo-Sax.  (I.)  gylden,  golden;  stanen,  made  of 
stone;  sylfren,  made  of  silver;  (2.)  becen,  beechen ;  fleaxen, 
flaxen  ;  linen  ;  treowen,  wooden  ;  (3.)  hwcetene,  wheaten ;  (4.) 
lethern. 

Also  Germ.  (1.)  golden;  irden,  earthen;  kupfern,  made  of 
copper ;  silbern,  made  of  silver ;  zinnen,  made  of  tin ;  (2.)  lirken, 
birchen  ;  flachsen,  flaxen  ;  hanfen,  hempen ;  leinen,  linen ;  (4.) 
seiden,  silken;  wollen,  woollen. 

The  Eng.  suffix  ine,  (Lat.  inus,  Ital.  Span,  and  Portug.  ino, 
Fr.  in,)  is  attached  to  words  of  Latin  origin;  as,  (1.)  adaman- 
tine; crystalline;  metalline;  saline;  sapphirine;  (2.)  can- 
nabine ;  (3.)  coralline. 

Sept.  6.  1843. 


APPENDIX. 


63 


E.    THE  ENGLISH  ADJECTIVE  SUFFIX  some. 
(Comp.  §  13.  X.) 

This  is  a  perplexing  suffix.  It  is  difficult  to  trace  its  origin 
with  certainty,  or  to  define  its  meaning  with  exactness. 

In  Scottish  the  suffix  sum  sometimes  denotes  together,  (comp. 
Sansk.  sam ;  Pers.  hem  ;  Gr.  a/w«,  opov ;  Lat.  simul ;  Fr.  en- 
semble ;  Goth,  samana ;  Germ,  sammt ;  Dutch  samen ;  Anglo- 
Sax,  sam  used  as  a  prefix) ;  as,  twasum,  two  together ;  thresum, 
three  together  ;fyvesum,  five  together.  But  this  accords  neither 
with  the  other  uses  of  the  suffix  in  Scottish,  nor  with  its  use  in 
the  other  Teutonic  dialects ;  as,  for  example,  Scott,  winsome , 
Germ,  einsam,  Eng.  lonesome. 

Most  grammarians  regard  this  suffix  as  the  adjective  some 
used  in  the  sense  of  somewhat,  and  this  circumstance  may  have 
affected  its  meaning  and  use  with  those  who  have  been  thus 
taught.  But  I  cannot  find  anything  analogous  in  the  English 
language  to  support  this  explanation ;  for  (1.)  some  in  the  other 
compounds,  somewhat,  somehow,  etc.  is  a  prefix  and  not  a  suf- 
fix ;  (2.)  in  laborless,  which  may  seem  to  many  analogous  to 
Idborsome,  the  suffix  less  is  not  the  comparative  degree  of  little, 
but  equivalent  to  our  word  loose,  free ;  and  (3.)  combinations, 
like  hindmost,  midmost,  are  limited  to  words  denoting  place. 

The  suffix  some,  (Old  Germ,  sam,  Old  Norse  samr,  Old  Sax. 
sam,  Germ.  5am,  Dutch  zaam,  Anglo-Sax,  sum,  Scott,  sum,  some,) 
is  most  probably  connected  with  Gr.  6^6g,  Lat.  similis,  Goth. 
sama,  the  same,  Old  Germ,  samalik,  like,  Eng.  same ;  and,  like 
the  suffix  lick,  Eng.  ly,  denotes  in  general  sameness,  similarity, 
X>r  close  connection. 

It  is  found  united  with  substantives,  adjectives  and  verbs. 
,  Joined  to  verbs  and  abstract  nouns,  it  denotes  a  tendency  or 
inclination  to  the  given  action  or  state.  Joined  to  a  concrete 
noun  or  to  an  adjective,  it  denotes  likeness  or  approximation^ 

I.  This  suffix  is  properly  attached  to  words  of  Teutonic 
origin. 

1.  To  substantives ;  as, 

Burdensome,  (like  a  burden,)  burdenous,  onerous. 

Galsome,  (inclined  to  gall  or  anger,)  rancorous,  malicious. 
Obsolete. 

Gamesome,  (inclined  to  game  or  sport,)  playful,  sportive. 

Mettlesome,  (inclined  to  mettle  or  high  spirits,)  high-spirited 

Play  some,  (inclined  to  play,)  playful,  sportive. 


FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

Toilsome,  (tending  to  toil,)  painful,  laborious. 

Toothsome,  (adapted  to  the  tooth  or  palate,)  palatable. 

Winsome,  (inclined  to  pleasure,)  pleasurable.  Obsolete. — 
From  Anglo-Sax,  wyn,  pleasure. 

Compare  Old  Germ,  ancsam,  anxious ;  gammensam,  game- 
some ;  wunisam,  winsome ;  Old  Sax.  wunsam,  winsome ;  Old 
Norse  gamansamr,  gamesome;  Anglo-Sax,  angsum,  anxious; 
sibsum,  peaceable ;  weorcsum,  irksome ;.  wynsum,  winsome ; 
Germ,  bedachtsam,  considerate ;  friedsam,  peaceable ;  Scott. 
winsome. 

(2.)  To  adjectives;  as, 

Blithesome,  (blithe-like,)  gay. 

Darksome,  (dark-like,)  gloomy. 

Frolicsome,  (frolic-like,)  merry. 

Fulsome,  (foul-like,)  nauseous,  offensive. 

Gladsome,  (glad-like,)  joyous. 

Lightsome,  (light-like,)  joyous. 

Lithesome,  (lithe-like,)  pliant.     Obsolete. 

Loathsome,  (loath-like,)  hateful. 

Lonesome,  (lone-like,)  lonely. 

Longsome,  (long-like,)  tedious.     Obsolete. 

Mirksome,  (mirk -like,)  darksome,  mirky. 

Wearisome,  (weary-like,)  tedious. 

Compare  Old  Germ,  irresam,  inconstant ;  kimeinsam,  com- 
mon ;  lihtsam,  lightsome ;  Old  Norse  langsamr,  longsome ; 
Anglo-Sax,  langsum,  longsome;  Germ,  einsam,  lonesome;  ge- 
meinsam,  common;  langsam,  longsome;  Scott,  fowsum,  ful- 
some ;  langsum,  longsome. 

(3.)  To  verbs;  as, 

Boughsome,  now  buxom,  (apt  to  bow  or  bend,)  flexible,  obe- 
dient. 

Handsome,  (apt  to  hand  or  take  hold  of,)  handy,  dextrous. 
From  the  root  of  hand  and  hound  ;  comp.  hend  in  comprehend. 
Comp.  also  Anglo-Sax,  hablenlic,  handsome. 

Irksome,  (apt  to  irk  or  tire,)  tiresome. 

Meddlesome,  (apt  to  meddle,)  officious. 

Tiresome,  (apt  to  tire,)  irksome. 

Wholesome,  (apt  to  heal  or  cure,)  salutary,  salubrious. 

Worrisome,  (apt  to  worry,)  fretful.     Colloquial. 

Compare  Anglo-Sax,  bocsum,  boughsome ;  hyrsum,  obedient, 
from  hyran,  to  obey;  Germ,  biegsam,  boughsome;  duldsam, 
patient. 


APPENDIX.  65 

II.  This  suffix  is  also  joined,  like  other  Teutonic  suffixes,  to 
words  derived  from  the  Latin  or  French.  Such  combinations 
are  a  later  formation,  having  originated  since  the  meeting  of 
the  two  great  streams  which  constitute  the  English  language. 
Of  course  they  are  peculiar  to  the  English  language  as  such. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  equivalent  to  the  more  legitimate 
forms  in  ous. 

(1.)  Joined  to  substantives ;  as, 

Adventuresome,  (inclined  to  adventure,)  adventurous. 

Delightsome,  (tending  to  delight,)  delightful,  delicious. — The 
word  delight  is  evidently  derived  to  us  from  the  Latin  through 
the  French,  although  it  has  in  a  very  strange  manner  acquired 
a  Teutonic  orthography,  as  if  compounded  of  de  and  light. 

Dolesome,  (tending  to  dole  or  grief,)  doleful,  dolorous. 

Humor  some,  (inclined  or  tending  to  wit,)  humorous;  also 
(inclined  to  ill-humor,)  peevish. 

Laborsome,  (requiring  labor,)  laborious.     Obsolete. 

Quarrelsome,  (inclined  to  quarrel,)  quarrelous. 

Venturesome,  (inclined  to  venture,)  venturous. 

(2.)  Joined  to  verbs ;  as, 

Cumbersome,  (apt  to  cumber,)  cumbrous. — This  word  is  de- 
rived to  us  from  the  French,  although  it  is  of  Teutonic  origin. 

Noisome,  (apt  to  noy,)  noyous. 

Tendsome,  (requiring  attention,)  fretful.     Colloquial. 

Troublesome,  (apt  to  trouble,)  vexatious;  different  from 
troublous,  which  has  a  passive  signification. — The  word  trouble 
is  derived  to  us  from  the  French,  although  it  is  probably  of 
Teutonic  origin. 

Note. — Of  these  derivatives  only  burdensome,  delightsome, 
loathsome,  noisome,  troublesome,  wearisome,  and  wholesome, 
are  found  in  the  common  English  version  of  the  Bible. 

Oct.  12.  1843. 

F.   ON  THE  ADVERBIAL  GENITIVES  IN  s  AND  si. 
(Comp.  p.  23.) 

The  genitive  case  in  English  is  usually  regarded  as  alto- 
gether adnominal,  i.  e.  as  used  only  in  connection  with  a  noun. 
Hence  the  only  rule  in  our  common  grammars  concerning  this 
case  is,  that  it  is  governed  by  a  substantive,  either  expressed, 
or  implied  by  the  context,  "in  the  other  Teutonic  dialects, 
however,  this  case  is  also  used  adverbially,  i.  e.  in  connection 
6* 


66  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

with  a  verb,  and  that  to  indicate  various  relations.  This  ad- 
verbial use  of  the  genitive,  although  generally  overlooked,  and 
often  misunderstood,  may  be  shown  to  exist  also  in  English  in 
several  classes  of  words. 

I.  This  genitive  is  found  in  a  few  substantives,  and  that  with- 
out any  preposition  preceding. 

1.  Needs,  (Old  Eug.nedes,  needes,)  of  or  from  necessity.  Thus, 
Soche  thinges  muste  nedes  be. — TYNDALE,  1534,  Mark  13 :  7. 
I  must  needes  goe  forth  and  see  it. — Rhemish  Version,  Luke 

14:  18. 

He  will  needs  be  a  judge. — Gen.  19:9. 

Needs  here  is  the  genitive  of  need.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
nedes  or  nydes,  of  necessity,  composed  of  ned  or  nyd,  neces- 
sity, and  es,  the  termination  of  the  genitive  singular  masculine. 

2.  Ways,  in  noways,  straightways,  otherways,  longways, 
sideways. 

Ways  here  is  the  genitive  of  way.  Comp.  Germ,  keines 
weges,  noways,  genitive  of  keiner  iveg ;  gerades  weges,  straight- 
ways,  genitive  of  gerader  weg. 

Note. —  Ways  in  always  is  probably  plural.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  ealle 
wcega,  in  all  ways,  the  adjective  ealle  and  the  substantive  wcega  being 
both  in  the  accusative  plural. 

3.  Gates,  in  Old  English  athergates,  in  another  manner. 
Thus, 

If  Sir  Toby  had  not  been  in  drink,  he  would  have  tickled 
you  othergates  than  he  did. — SHAKSP. 

Gates  here  is  the  genitive  of  gate,  \.  q.  gait,  way,  manner. 
Comp.  Scott,  thus  gatis,  after  this  manner,  both  words  being 
in  the  genitive  singular. 

Note. —  Gates  in  algates  is  probably  plural.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  algeats; 
also  Scott,  mony  gatis,.  in  various  ways ;  also  always  supra. 

4.  Times  in  sometimes,  at  one  time. 
Here  times  is  the  genitive  of  time. 

Note. — Times  in  sometimes,  at  some  times  or  intervals,  is  plural. 

II.  This  genitive  is  found  in  some  substantives  with  a  prepo- 
sition preceding. 

1.  Adays,  (Old  Eng.  adayes,  adaies.,)  in  or  on  day,  i.e.  by 
day.  Thus, 

Aday  when  hyt  is  lygt. — SYR  LAUNFAL. 

So  in  the  phrase  now  adays 

Days  here  is  the  genitive  of  day.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  dages, 
by  day,  genitive  of  dag,  day;  Germ,  dags,  by  day,  genitive  of 
dag,  day. 


APPENDIX.  67 

j^b^,— -The  idea  that  days  is  plural,  seems  sometimes  to  have  affected 
its  use.  Thus, 

What  men  of  spirit  now  adays 

Come  to  give  sober  judgment  of  new  plays  ? — GAERICK. 

2.  Anights,  in  or  on  night,  i.  e.  at  night.     Thus, 

I  bid  him  take  that  for  coming  anights. — SHAKSP. 

Such  as  sleepe  anights. — SHAKSP. 

Nights  here  is  the  genitive  of  night.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
nihtes,  Germ,  nachts,  where  s,  or  es,  is  the  termination  of  the 
genitive  singular  masculine. 

3.  Besides,  (Old  Eng.  bisidis,)  by  the  side,  over  and  above. 
Thus, 

In  that  dai  Jhesus  ghede  out  of  the  hous,  and  sate  bisidis 
the  see. — WICLIF,  Mat.  13:1. 

Sides  here  is  the  genitive  of  side.  Comp.  Germ,  beiseits, 
aside,  where  s  is  the  termination  of  the  genitive  singular  mas- 
culine. 

4.  Ships,   in   midships,  amidships,  thwartships,  athwart- 
ships,  is  the  genitive  of  ship. 

III.  This  genitive  is  found  in  a  few  adjectives,  either  with  or 
without  a  preposition  preceding. 

1.  Askance,  obliquely.      Comp.  Dutch  schuins,  obliquely, 
where  s  is  the  genitive  termination. 

2.  Soons,  in  Old  English  eftsones  or  eftsoons,  soon  afterwards, 
compounded  of  Anglo-Sax,  eft,  afterwards,  and  sones,  soon. 

Moyses  eftsones  resorting  to  Damascus. — GOWER. 
Crying  eftsoons  alowd. — HOLLAND. 
Eftsoons  the  father  of  the  silver  flood. — THOMSON. 
Soons   here  is   the   genitive   of  soon.     Comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
9ones,  with  the  termination  of  the  genitive. 

3.  Unawares,  or  at  unawares,  (Old  Eng.  unwares ;)  unex- 
pectedly.    Thus, 

That  daye  come  on  you  unwares. — TYNDALE,  Luke  21 :  34. 
Jacob  stole  away  unawares  to  Laban. — Gen.  31 :  20. 
Let  destruction  corne  upon  him  at  unawares. — Ps.  35 :  8. 
Unawares  here  is  the  genitive  of  unaware.     Comp.  Anglo- 
Sax,  unawares,  which  is  in  the  genitive. 

4.  Wards,  in  inwards,  outwards,  towards,  fromwards,  on- 
wards, upwards,  downwards,  forwards,  backwards,   after- 
wards, sidewards,  hitherwards,  homewards. 

Wards  here  is  the  genitive  of  ward,  Lat.  versus.  Comp. 
Goth,  andvairthis,  jaindvairths,  vithravairths.  Old  Germ. 
inwertes,  uzwertes,  anawertes,  heimwartes..  Germ,  einwdrts, 


68  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

auswartS)  abwarts,  aufwarts,  unterwarts,  niederwarts,  vor- 
warts,  ruckwarts,  seitwarts,  herwarts,  thalwdrts.  Anglo-Sax. 
uleweardes,  towardes  or  toweardes,  upweardes^  fromweardes, 
hameiveardes. 

The  termination  s  in  these  examples  from  the  kindred  dia- 
lects is  evidently  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case. 

IY.  This  genitive  is  found  in  some  numerals. 

1.  Once,  (Old  Eng.  onys,  oonys,  onis ;)  one  time,  formerly. 
Thus, 

For  and  thy  wyfe  may  onys  aspye. — Poem  in  the  time  of 
Henry  II. 

He  was  deed  oonys. — WICLIF,  Rom.  6:10. 

Once  here  is  the  genitive  of  one.  Comp.  Dutch  eens,  once, 
genitive  of  een,  one ;  Old  Germ,  eines,  genitive  of  em,  one ; 
Germ,  einst,  (for  eines,)  formerly. 

2.  Twice,  (Old  Eng.  tioies,  twyes,)  two  times.     Thus, 
As  presente  twies. — WICLIF,  2  Cor.  13  :  2. 

Twyes  is  somer  in  that  londe. — KYNG  ALISAUNDER. 
Twice  here  is  the  genitive  of  two. 

3.  Thrice,  (Old  Eng.  thries,  thryse,)  three  times.     Thus, 
Thries  I  was  betun. — WICLIF,  2  Cor.  11 :  25. 

Thou  shalte  denye  me  thryse. — BIBLE,  1551. 

Thrice  here  is  the  genitive  of  three. 

Y.  This  genitive  is  found  in  some  pronouns. 

1.  Else,  (Old  Eng.  elles,  ellys,  ellis,  els ;  Scott,  ellis ;)  other- 
wise. 

Elles  wyder. — R.  GLOUCESTER. 

Let  honge  me  ellys. — PIERS  PLOUHMAN. 

Ellis  ye  schuln  have  no  mede  at  youre  fadir  that  is  in  hev- 
enes. — WICLIF,  Mat.  6:1. 

Or  els  ye  get  no  rewarde  of  youre  father  which  is  in  heven. 
- — TYNDALE,  Mat.  6:1. 

All  that  els  I  saw. — SPENSER. 

Else  here  is  the  genitive  of  the  root  of  Gr.  e&Ao£,  Lat.  alius, 
Goth.  alis.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  elles,  Old  Germ,  alies,  elies, 
alles,  alias,  ellies,  Dan.  ellers ;  in  all  which  forms  s  is  the  ter- 
mination of  the  genitive. 

2.  Hence,  (Old Eng.  hennes,  hennis,  hens;  also  /tan,  henne  ;) 
from  this  place. 

Holynesse  and  love  han  ben  longe  hennis. — PIERS  PLOUHMAN. 

Passe  thou  hennes. — WICLIF,  Mat.  17  :  20. 

Y  eschulen  not  seme  fro  hennesforthe. — WICLIF,  Mat.  23  :  39. 


APPENDIX.  69 

Hens  over  a  mile. — CHAUCER. 

Hence  here  probably  has  the  termination  of  the  genitive. 
Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  heonun,  (Lat.  hinc,  Provenc,.  hereance,)  Germ. 
hinnen. 

3.  Thence,  (Old  Eng.  thennes,  thennis,  thens ;)  from  that 
place. 

And  he  ghede  out  fro  thennes. — WICLIF,  Mark  6:1. 
They  thennes  went. — CHAUCER. 
From  thensforih. — CHAUCER. 

Thence  here  probably  has  the  termination  of  the  genitive. 
Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  thanon ;  Germ,  dannen ;  Provenc, .  thereance. 

4.  Whence,  (Old  Eng.  whennes,  whethence ;)  from  what  place. 
Of  whennes  to  this,  alle  these  thingis. — WICLIF,  Mark  6  :  2. 
From  whens  hath  he  these  thinges  ? — TYNDALE,  Mark  6  :  2. 
Whens  that  she  came. — GOWER. 

Whence  here  probably  has  the  termination  of  the  genitive. 
Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  hwanan,  hwanon,  Old  Germ,  hwanan,  Germ. 
wannen. 

5.  Since,  (Old  Eng.  sens,  sence,  sithence,  sithens,)  from  the 
time. 

How  longe  is  it  a  goo,  sens  this  hath  happened  him  ? — TYN- 
DALE, Mark  9:21. 

For  sence  the  fathers  dyed,  all  thinges  continue. — TYNDALE, 
2  Pet.  3  :  4. 

And  therefore  sithence  the  bishop  of  Rome  will  now  adaies 
be  so  called. — JEWELL. 

For  sithens  shootinge  was  neglected. — ASCHAM. 

Sithence  the  verie  apostles  owne  times. — HOOKER. 

Before  or  sithence. — HOOKER. 

Since  here  probably  has  the  termination  of  the  genitive. 
Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  sithen,  siththan,  syththan,  Dutch  sinds, 
Germ.  seit. 

6.  Thus,  (Old  Eng.  this,)  in  this  manner. 

He  hath  lain  this  long  at  great  costes  and  charges  and  canne 
not  have  hys  matter  come  to  the  hearynge. — LATIMER,  1562. 

u  Thus  much"  for  "  this  much." — WEBSTER. 

Thus  here  is  the  genitive  of  the  or  that.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
thus,  thces,  Dutch  dus.  The  Anglo-Sax,  thces,  this,  is  the  gen- 
itive singular  masculine  and  neuter  of  se,  theo,  that. 

VI.  This  genitive  is  found  in  some  words,  in  which  s  the 
sign  of  the  genitive  is  now  hardened  into  st. 

1.  Against,  (Old  Eng.  agens,  ageins,)  in  opposition  to. 


70  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

He  that  is  not  with  me :  is  agens  me. — WICLIF,  Mat.  12  :  30. 

Ageins  nature. — CHAUCER. 

Against  here  is  probably  the  genitive  case  of  an  old  noun, 
whose  meaning  cannot  be  exactly  defined.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
to-geanes,  to-genes,  to-gagnes,  to-gegnes,  Dutch  tegens.  These 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Dutch  forms  commence  with  a  different  pre- 
fix, but  have  the  genitive  termination. 

Note. — The  convenient  distinction  made  in  English  between  again  and 
against  does  not  exist  in  the  other  dialects. 

2.  Alongst,  (obsolete,  see  Dr.  Webster ;  Old  Eng.  alongest, 
Scott,  langls ;)  by  the  length. 

To  sayle  alongest  by  the  lande. — NICOLLS,  Thucyd.  1550. 

Alongst  the  sea-coast. — KNOLLES. 

Langis  the  ryvere  of  Anien. — DOUGLAS,  Virgil. 

Alongst  here  is  the  genitive  case  of  long.  Comp.  Germ. 
langs,  along;  Old  Germ,  langes,  and  Germ,  langst,  a  long 
time;  Dutch  onlangs,  recently,  langs,  along;  Swed.  l&ngs, 
along. 

3.  Amidst,  in  the  midst  or  middle. — See  Midst. 

4.  Amongst,  (Old  Eng.  amanges^  amonges,  amongest ;  Scott. 
amangis,  amangys  ;)  in  the  crowd. 

To  halden  amanges  yen  ine  hord. — Old  English  Letter  of  the 
year  1258. 

Amonges  other  of  his  honest  thinges. — CHAUCER. 

I  stonde  as  one  amongest  all. — GOWER. 

Amangys  thame. — SCOTT.  ACTS,  1567. 

Amongst  here  is  probably  the  genitive  case  of  an  old  noun, 
denoting  a  crowd  or  multitude. 

5.  Atwixt,  (obsolete,  see  Dr.  Webster,)  between. — See  Be- 
twixt. 

Great  love  was  atwixt  hem  two. — CHAUCER. 

With  dreadful  thunder  and  lightning  atwixt. — SPENSER. 

6.  Awhilst,    (not   in   Webster,   nor   in   Richardson.) — See 
Whilst. 

7.  Betwixt,  (Old  Eng.  lituex,  lytwixe,  betwix,  litwixen,  by- 
twyx,  lytwyt,  betwyx ;  Scott,  betweesh ;)  between. 

Bituex  them. — R.  BRUNNE. 

Bytwixe  us  and  you. — WICLIF,  Luke  16  :  26. 

Betwix  all  maner  folk. — CHAUCER. 

This  was  the  forward  pleinly  t'  endite, 
Bitwixen  Theseus  and  him  Arcite. — CHAUCER. 


APPENDIX.  71 

Betwixt  here  is  the  genitive  case  of  an  old  noun  signifying 
two.  Compare  Anglo-Sax,  betweohs,  betweox,  betwux,  betwuxt, 
betwixt. 

8.  Midst,  in  the  phrases  amidst,  about  the  midst,  from  the 
midst,  in  the  midst,  into  the  midst,  of  the  midst,  out  of  the 
midst,  through  the  midst,  etc.     (Old  Eng.  myddes,  myddest, 
myds,  middes,  middest,  mids ;  Scott,  myddis;)  the  middle. 

In  the  myddes  of  the  world. — R.  GLOUCESTER. 

Yet  was  he  caught  amiddes  all  his  pride. — CHAUCER. 

And  the  vayle  of  the  temple  dyd  rent  even  thorow  the 
myddes. — TYNDALE,  Luke  23  :  45. 

Which  is  in  the  myddes  of  the  paradice  of  God. — TYNDALE, 
Rev.  2 :  7. 

The  shippe  was  now  in  the  middes  of  the  see. — TYNDALE, 
Mat.  14 :  24. 

For  lykewise  as  God  is  in  the  myds  of  the  good  counsayle, 
so  in  the  myddest  of  an  evyl  counsayl,  is  ther  undoutedly  the 
dyvel. — Sir  T.  MOORE. 

When  Calidora 
Him  overtook  in  middest  of  his  race. — SPENSER,  Faerie  Queene. 

Among  the  middest  crowd. — SPENSER. 

And  the  vaile  of  the  temple  was  rent  in  the  mids. — Original 
Edition  of  King  James's  Bible,  Luke  23  :  45. 

Which  is  in  the  middest  of  the  paradise  of  God. — Original 
Edition  of  King  James's  Bible,  Rev.  2:7. 

In  myddis  of  the  land. —  WYNTOWN. 

Midst  is  rarely  used  as  a  nominative,  or  as  an  accusative 
without  a  preposition. 

Midst  here  is  the  genitive  case  of  mid,  the  middle.  Cornp. 
Anglo-Sax,  to-middes,  where  middes  is  the  genitive  of  Anglo- 
Sax,  midd,  the  middle ;  Germ,  mittelst,  by  means  of,  for  mittels, 
the  genitive*  of  Germ,  mittel,  the  middle  or  means. 

Note. — Dr.  Webster  supposes  st  in  midst  to  be  the  sign  of  the  super- 
lative degree.  So  Sir  John  Stoddart,  art.  Grammar,  in  Encyc.  Metrop. 
p.  129. 

9.  Whilst,  awhilst ;  (Old  Eng.  whiles,  whitest ;  Scott,  quhiles, 
whiles;)  while. 

Wat  sholde  we  women,  worche  the  whiles. — PIERS  PLOUH- 

MAN. 

Whitest  good  men  wanted  it. — BEAUMONT  and  FLETCHER. 
Whiles  he  tasted  the  wine. — Some  Editions  of  King  James's 
Bible,  Daniel  5  :  2. 


72  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS. 

Quhiles  wandering,  quhiles  dandring. — BUREL'S  Pilg. 
Whilst  here  is  the  genitive  case  of  while,  time. 
Note. — On  the  st  generally,  comp.  Germ,  nebst,  (from  neben,  nebens,) 
anders  and  anderst ;  selbst,  (Old  Germ,  selbs,  Dutch  zelfs.) 

June,  1843. 

1  The  foregoing  was  published  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Science  for  June,  1843.  But  our  lexicographers  have  been 
slow  in  admitting  the  principle  contended  for. 

It  does  not  appear  that  Dr.  Webster  was  at  all  aware  of  the 
genitive  case  inherent  in  these  words.  Dr.  Chs.  Richardson 
recognizes  the  genitive  in  once,  twice,  thrice,  hence,  thence, 
whence.  Dr.  Worcester  only  in  the  word  once. 

The  misapprehension  of  this  subject  has  led  to  erroneous 
statements  like  the  following;  that  needs  is  equivalent  to  need 
is ;  that  besides  is  a  corruption  of  beside ;  that  else  is  the  im- 
perative of  Anglo-Sax,  alysan,  to  dismiss ;  and  that  adays  and 
anights  contain  plural  nouns. 

G.    THE  ENGLISH  SUFFIX  er. 
(Comp.  p.  24.) 

The  suffix  er,  which  occurs  so  often  in  English,  has  different 
origins  and  uses,  which  need  to  be  carefully  distinguished.  I 
propose  to  attempt  a  scientific  classification. 

I.  The  Teutonic  suffix  er,  (Goth,  r,  Old  Germ,  ar,  Germ,  er, 
Anglo  Sax.  r,  or,  er,)  in  some  words  is  merely  formative,  with- 
out farther  significancy  of  itself. 

1.  In  substantives, 

(1.)  Denoting  the  active  subject ;  as,  finger,  (Goth,  figgrs, 
Germ,  and  Anglo-Sax,  finger ;)  fodder,  (Germ,  fatter,  Anglo- 
Sax,  foddor,  fodder ;)  ladder,  (Old  Germ,  hleitar,  Germ,  lei- 
ter,  Anglo-Sax,  hladder ;)  hammer,  (Germ,  hammer,  Anglo-Sax. 
hamor,  hamer ;)  rudder,  (Germ,  ruder,  Anglo-Sax,  rother ;) 
weather,  (Germ,  wetter,  Anglo-Sax,  weder.) 

(2.)  Denoting  the  passive  object ;  as,  bladder,  (Germ,  blat- 
ter, Anglo-Sax,  blcedr  ;)  madder,  ( Anglo-Sax,  mceddere  ;) 
shoulder,  (Germ,  schulter,  Anglo-Sax,  sculder ;)  water,  (Old 
Germ,  tvazzar,  Germ,  wasser,  Anglo-Sax,  water.) 

(3.)  Denoting  the  abstract  state  or  action ;  as,  hunger,  (Goth. 
huhrus,  Old  Germ,  hungar,  Germ,  and  Anglo-Sax,  hunger,') 
murther  or  murder,  (Goth,  maurthr,  Old  Germ,  mordar,  An- 
glo-Sax, morther.) 


APPENDIX.  73 

2,  In  adjectives;  as,  bitter,  (Goth,  bailrs,  Germ.  Miter,  An- 
glo-Sax, biter ;)  meager,  (Old  Germ,  magar,  Germ,  mager, 
Anglo-Sax,  mceger.) 

II.  The  Teutonic  nominal  suffix,  (Goth,  areis,  Old  Germ. 
ari,  are,  aere,  Germ,  er,  Anglo-Sax,  ere,)  denoting  the  active 
subject. 

(1.)  Denoting  the  male  person  or  animal,  when  added  to  the 
name  of  the  female;  as,  widower  from  widow;  gander  from 
goose;  (comp.  Germ,  wittwer,  a  widower,  from  ivittwe,  a 
widow ;  ganser,  a  gander,  from  gans,  a  goose ;  enterich,  a 
drake,  from  ente,  a  duck ;  tauber,  a  male  pigeon,  from  taube ; 
kater,  a  male  cat,  from  kalze ;)  or  when  it  corresponds  to  ess 
in  the  name  of  the  female ;  as,  adulterer,  hucksterer,  murderer, 
sorcerer ;  in  which  the  termination  is  evidently  Teutonic,  al- 
though some  of  the  words  may  be  of  Latin  or  French  origin. 

(2.)  Denoting  the  personal  subject  in  innumerable  verbs ;  as, 
lover,  hater,  baker,  brewer,  etc. 

(3.)  Denoting  animals;  as,  ambler,  galloper,  hunter,  pacer, 
pointer,  setter,  sitter,  skimmer,  spinner. 

(4.)  Denoting  the  instrumental  subject ;  as,  boiler,  borer, 
bracer,  clapper,  cleaver,  climber,  creeper,  cutter,  dipper, 
feeler,  forerunner,  galloper,  girder,  graver,  grinder,  holder, 
lighter,  muffler,  penner,  pointer,  retainer,  roaster,  rubber, 
scraper,  shutter,  skimmer,  slipper,  strainer,  streamer,  strength- 
ener,  snuffers,  sweetener,  toaster,  voider^  wrapper. 

(5.)  Denoting  the  personal  subject  connected  with  the  radi- 
cal noun ;  as,  armorer,  gunner,  halter,  jailer,  jobber,  potter , 
spicer,  tinner,  warrener. 

(6.)  In  gentile  nouns  and  some  kindred  words: 

1.  In  gentile  nouns;    as,  Edinburgher,  Hamburger,  Hol- 
lander,   New~Englander,    New-Havener,    New-Yorker,   New- 
Zealander. 

2.  In  kindred  words;  as,  burgher,  foreigner,  highlander,  for- 
ester, freeholder,  inlander,  villager. 

III.  The  Teutonic  verbal  suffix,  forming  frequentatives  from 
other  verbs;  as,  to  chatter  from  to  chat;  to  clamber  or  climber, 
from  to  climb;  to  clapper,  from  to  clap;  to  flitter,  from  to  flit; 
to  gibber,  from  to  gab ;  to  glimmer,  from  to  gleam  ;  to  wander, 
from  to  wend. 

IV.  The  Latin  suffix  er  merely  formative,  without  farther 
significancy. 


74  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

1 .  In  nouns ;  as,  cancer,  canker,  center,  chamber,  cucumber, 
member,  meter,  number,  sober,  tiger,  ulcer. 

2.  In  verbs ;  as,  consider,  ponder. 

V.  The  suffix  er,   (Lat.  arius,  Ital.  iere,  Span,  ero,  Portug. 
eiro,  Fr.  ier,)  denoting  the  subject  in  words  derived  from  the 
Latin  and  French  ;   as,  almoner,  (Fr.  aumonier  ;)  archer,  (Lat. 
arcuarius,  Ital.  arciero,    Fr.  archer;)    banker,   (Fr.  banquier ;) 
cordwainer,  (Fr.  cordouainier  ;)  cutler,  (Fr.  coutelier  ;)  falconer, 
(Fr.  fauconnier  ;)  forester,    (Fr.  forestier ;)  justicer,   (Fr.  ^'ws- 
ticier;)  mercer,  (Fr.  mercier;)  prisoner,  (Fr.  prisonnier;)  renter, 
(Fr.  rentier  ;)   usurer,  (Fr.  usurier.) 

Also  butcher,  garner,  quarter,  slander,  stranger. 

Also  in  the  double  suffixes  ft'oner  and  sioner,  (Fr.  tionnaire 
and  sionnaire  ;)  as,  commissioner.  (Fr.  commissionaire  ;)  ccw- 
fectioner ;  executioner;  extortioner;  missioner,  (Fr.  mission- 
naire  ;)  pensioner,  (Fr.  pensionnaire  ;)  petitioner,  (Fr.  petition- 
naire  ;  practitioner  ;  probationer  ;  stationer  ;  (Fr.  stationnaire.) 

VI.  The  French  infinitive  termination  er  or  re,  retained  in 
some  words  of  French  origin,  and  of  course  without  any  pecu- 
liar significancy ;  as, 

To  /a^er,  (Fr.  Caller,  Dan.  flattere.) 

To  mucker,  (Ital.  ammuchiare,  to  amass,  Scott,  mochre,  to 
hoard.) 

To  reconnoiter,  (Fr.  reconnoitre,  Lat.  recognoscere.) 

To  render,  (Fr.  rendre,  Portug.  render,  Span,  rendir,  Ital. 
rendere,  Lat.  reddere.) 

To  scamper,  (Fr.  escamper,  Span,  escampar,  Ital.  scampare.) 

Feb.  5.  1842. 

H.     THE  NOMINAL  SUFFIX  sler. 
(Comp.  p.  25.) 

The  English  suffix  ster,  (Anglo  Sax.  es^re,  w^rf,  Dutch,  5^er,) 
is  found  in  a  few  English  words  of  Teutonic  origin,  and  denotes 

1.  Primarily  the  feminine  of  the  corresponding  masculine 
form  in  er,  (Anglo-Sax,  ere,  Dutch  er;)  as,  Anglo-Sax,  bceccstre, 
a  female  baker,  from  bcecere ;  fithelstre,  a  female  fiddler,  from 
fithelere ;  rcedestre,  a  female  reader,  from  rcedere ;  seamestre,  a 
seamstress,  from  seamere  ;  sangistre,  a  songstress,  from  sangere  ; 
webbestre,  a  female  weaver,  from  webba ;  witegestre,  a  proph- 
etess, from  witega  ;  coennestre,  a  mother ;  forspennestre,  a  bawd  ; 
Icerestre,  an  instructress ;  millistre,  a  harlot ;  wcepenwifestre, 
an  hermaphrodite ;  Dutch  bafcster,  a  female  baker,  from  bakker  ; 


APPENDIX.  5 

koopster,  a  female  buyer,  from  Jcooper ;  tovenaaster,  an  en- 
chantress, from  tovenaar ;  vleyster,  a  female  flatterer,  from 
vleyer,  a  flatterer ;  waschter,  a  female  washer. 

Sewster,  (from  sewer,)  a  female  who  sews. 

Spinster,  (from  spinner,)  a  female  who  spins. 

2.  More  commonly  the  subject,  without  reference  to  sex, 
concerned  with  the  idea  expressed  by  the  radical  verb  or  noun ; 
as  Anglo-Sax,  bcecestre,  a  baker. 

Bakester,  (from  baker,)  now  only  as  a  proper  name,  Baxter. 

Brewster,  (from  brewer^)  now  only  as  a  proper  name. 

Dabster,  (from  to  dab,)  one  skilled  in  his  business. 

Deemster,  (from  to  deem,)  a  judge  in  Jersey  and  the  Isle  of 
Man. 

Drugster,  (from  drugger,)  a  druggist. 

Gamester,  (from  to  game,)  a  gambler. 

Huckster,  (from  to  huck,)  a  retailer  of  small  articles. 

Hamster,  (from  Germ.  V  ham,  to  hide,)  a  species  of  rat. 

Lewdster,  (from  lewd,)  a  lecher. 

Lobster,  (from  to  foop,)  a  crustaceous  fish. 

Maltster,  (from  to  ma//,)  one  who  makes  malt. 

Punster,  (from  punner,)  a  maker  of  puns. 

Rhymster,  (from  rhymer,)  a  poor  poet. 

Seamster,  (from  to  seam,)  one  that  sews. 

Shepster,  (from  sheep,)  a  shepherd. 

Songster,  (from  Anglo-Sax,  sangere,)  a  singer. 

Tapster,  (from  to  /op,)  one  whose  business  is  to  draw  liquor. 

Teamster,  (from  team,)  one  who  drives  a  team. 

Throwster,  (from  thrower,)  one  who  twists  or  winds  silk. 

Webster,  (from  Anglo-Sax,  webba,  a  weaver,)  now  only  as  a 
proper  name. 

Whipster,  (from  to  wA?£>,)  a  nimble  fellow. 

Youngster,  (from  goung,)  a  lad. 

JVbte  1. — A.  F.  Pott  derives  the  suffix  ster,  from  Sansk.  s£n, 
a  woman.  Dr.  Webster  derives  it  from  Anglo-Sax,  steora,  a 
director.  But  neither  explanation  is  sufficiently  confirmed. 

Note  2. — The  Teutonic  suffix  ster,  having  lost  its  force  to 
express  the  feminine,  the  synonymous  Latin  suffix  ess  has  been 
superadded  in  some  cases ;  as  huckstered,  seamstress  or  semp- 
stress, songstress.  These  words  are  hybrid  malformations  pe- 
culiar to  the  English  language ;  yet  they  have  been  well  re- 
ceived. 

May  29.  1841. 


6  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORM, 

I.    THE  NOMINAL  SUFFIX  ard. 
(Comp.  p.  25.) 

The  suffix  ard  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  English,  as  well 
as  in  some  other  languages.  Its  import  is  seldom  alluded  to  in 
our  elementary  books,  and  is  very  unsatisfactorily  explained  in 
our  best  helps.  If  any  thing  can  be  effected  by  classification 
and  arrangement  to  elucidate  its  meaning,  it  ought  to  be  wel- 
comed by  the  friends  of  science. 

The  English  suffix  ard,  (Anglo-Sax,  heard,  Dutch  aard,  Old 
Dutch  aert,  Germ,  hard  and  hart,  Old  Germ,  hart ;  also  French 
ard,  arde,  Span,  and  Ital.  ardo,  arda.  Provenc.  art,)  is  probably 
connected  with  Eng.  hard,  (Anglo-Sax,  heard,  Dutch  hard, 
Germ,  hart,  Goth,  hardus.) 

I.  This  suffix,  being  of  Teutonic  origin,  is  properly  attached 
to  Teutonic  words. 

1.  To  proper  names  of  persons,  originally  denoting  some 
prominent  or  characteristic  trait;  as  Bernard,  Everard,  Gerard, 
Oiffard,  Goddard,  Kenard.  Leonard,  Richard,  Wischard.    Also 
Renard,  the  proper  name  of  the  fox  in  poetry  and  fable. 

2.  To  ampliatives  derived  from  adjectives  or  participles,  de- 
noting some  personal  quality  in  excess;  as  drunkard,  dullard, 
haggard,  laggard,  lobbard,  niggard,  sluggard,  wizard. 

3.  To  ampliatives  derived  from  verbs,  denoting  some  quality 
in  excess ;  as  dotard,  pollard.     Usually  some  personal  quality  ; 
as  blinkard,  braggart,  (whence  braggardismj)  dastard,  disard, 
dizzard,  dotard,  stinkard. 

II.  This  suffix,  although  of  Teutonic  origin,  was  adopted  also 
into  the  Romance  or  modern  Latin  languages.     Hence  it  is 
found  in  some  words  of  French  origin. 

1.  In  some  national  denominations,  perhaps  with  the  impli- 
cation of  foreign  ;  as  Savoyard,  Spaniard. 

2.  In  ampliatives,  denoting  some  personal  quality  in  excess; 
as  bastard,  coward,  galliard,  Hard. 

3.  In  names  of  animals,  in  which  the  ampliative  meaning  is 
less  obvious ;  as  bayard,  buzzard,  jumart. 

4.  In  names  of  things,  in  which  the  ampliative  meaning  is 
less  obvious ;   as  billiard,  bombard,  hazard,  mazard,  mustard, 
poniard,  standard,  tabard,  tankard. 

June  22.  1842, 


APPENDIX. 

J,    THE  NOMINAL  SUFFIX  kin. 
(Comp.  p.  26.) 

Diminutives  are  words  whose  form  has  been  altered  to  express 
diminution  or  smallness.  In  use,  however,  they  often  acquire 
the  secondary  import  of  tenderness  and  endearment,  or  that  of 
contempt;  and  sometimes  lose  their  diminutive  force  altogether. 

Diminutives  differ  from  other  derivatives  in  this  that  they 
continue  of  the  same  part  of  speech  with  their  primitives ;  as 
lambkin,  a  young  lamb,  from  lamb.  But  baker,  a  substantive, 
from  the  verb  to  bake.  Their  formation  is  a  kind  of  motion, 
distinct  both  from  derivation  and  from  inflection. 

The  power  of  forming  diminutives  is  now  nearly  dormant  in 
English. 

I  propose  to  consider  English  diminutives  in  kin.  The  fol- 
lowing list  embraces  most  of  the  English  words  which  have  this 
diminutive  suffix. 

1 .  Bodkin,  perhaps  for  bodikin,  from  body. 

2.  Bumkin  or  bumpkin,  a  short  boom ;  also  a  clown,  as  if 
a  blockhead ;  from  boom  or  beam,  originally  a  tree. 

3.  Raskin  or  bootikin,  a  kind  of  half-boot,  from  boot.   Comp. 
Fr.  bottine,  a  buskin,  from  botte,  a  boot. 

4.  Chicken  or  chick,  the  young  of  fowls,  from  cock.     Comp. 
Anglo-Sax,  cicen,  from  cocc.    There  is  here  an  attenuation  or  pre- 
cession of  the  vowel,  which  is  common  in  the  kindred  dialects. 

5.  Ciderkin,  an  inferior  cider,  from  cider. 

6.  Dodkin  or  doitkin,  a  little  doit,  from  doit,  a  small  piece  of 
money.     Comp.  Germ,  dutchen,  from  deut. 

7.  Firkin,  a  fourth  part  of  a  barrel,  from  four,  as  if  a  little 
four. 

8.  Gherkin,  a  small  pickled  cucumber,  from  Germ,  gurke,  a 
cucumber. 

9.  Griskin,  obsolete,  the  spine  of  a  hog,  from  grise,  obsolete, 
a  swine. 

10.  Jerkin,  a  jacket,  from  Dutch  jurk,  a  frock. 

11.  Jerkin,  a  kind   of  hawk,  from   Germ,  geier,  a  hawk. 
Comp.  Eng.  gyrfalcon  (geier  falcon),  a  species  of  hawk. 

12.  Kilderkin,  from  an  uncertain  root. 

13.  Kitten,  a  young  cat,  from  cat.     Comp.  Germ,  kdtzchen, 
a  young  cat,  from  katze,  a  cat,  and  Eng.  catkin,  a  species  of 
calyx  resembling  a  cat's  tail.     There  is  here  an  attenuation  or 
precession  of  the  vowel ;  comp.  chicken.  [Comp.  Note  on  p.  25.] 

7* 


78  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

14.  Lakin  for  ladikin,  the  little  lady,  in  the  phrase  by  V  lakin, 
by  our  little  lady,  meaning  the  virgin  Mary,  a  form  of  oath  in 
Shakspeare.     The  diminutive  here  is  the  diminutive  of  en- 
dearment. 

15.  Lambkin,  a  little  lamb,  from  lamb.    Comp.  Germ,  lamin- 
then,  from  la  mm. 

16.  Maiden,  from  maid.    Comp.  Germ,  mddchen  from  magd. 
There  is  now  no  difference  of  signification  in  maid  and  maiden. 

17.  Malkin  or  maukin,  a  kind  of  mop;  also,  a  dirty  wench. 
From  an  uncertain  root. 

18.  Minikin,  diminutive,  small,  from  obsolete  min,  the  root 
of  minish,  minor,  etc. 

19.  Manikin,  a  little  man,  from  man.    Comp.  Fr.  manequin, 
a  wooden  figure  used  by  painters,  the  same  word,  derived  from 
the  Teutonic. 

20.  Napkin,  a  towel,  from  Fr.  nappe,  a  cloth.     Here  an 
Anglo-Saxon  suffix  is  attached  to  a  Norman  French  word. 

21.  Pipkin,  a  small  earthen  boiler,  from  pipe. 

22.  Pumpkin,  the  name  of  a  fruit,  from  Germ. pompe,  a  gourd. 

23.  Siskin,  the  name  of  a  bird  ;  comp.  Gerrn.  susschen,  from 
suss,  sweet. 

24.  Slamkin  or  slammerkin,  obsolete,  a  slut,  perhaps  from 
Germ.  schlam?n,  mud,  mire. 

This  suffix  is  often  found  in  proper  names  of  persons ;  as 
Dawkin,  a  little  David,  from  David  ;  Dicken  or  Dickon,  from 
Dick,  for  Richard ;  Hawkin,  from  Hal  for  Henry ;  Hopkin, 
from  Hob;  Hodgkin,  from  Hodge;  Huggin,  from  Hugh  ;  Lar- 
Icin,  from  Larry  for  Lawrence;  Jenkin,  from  Jean;  Lukin,  from 
Louis,  or  perhaps  from  Luke  ;  Malkin  (whence  grimalkin,  an 
old  cat ;  also,  the  name  of  a  spirit,)  from  Mai  for  Mary;  Peter- 
kin  or  Perkin,  from  Peter;  Popkin,  from  Pop  for  Robert; 
Sawkin,  from  Sal  for  Sarah;  Simpkin,  from  Simeon;  Tim- 
kin,  from  Timothy;  Tomkinfrom  Thomas;  Watkin,  from  Wat 
for  Walter ;  Wilkin  from  William. 

June  16.  1845. 

K.     THE  NOMINAL  SUFFIX  ling. 
(Comp.  p.  26.) 

I  am  not  aware  that  any  grammarian  has  attempted  a  clas- 
sification and  genealogical  arrangement  of  the  different  uses  of 
the  suffix  ling  in  the  English  language.  Yet,  on  account  of  its 


APPENDIX.  79 

frequent  occurrence  and  various  applications,  it  is  important  to 
every  one  to  understand  its  history,  who  would  judge  correctly 
of  its  import. 

1.  The  suffix  ling,  annexed  to  verbs,  denotes  a  single  per- 
sonal subject,  for  the  most  part  passive,  sometimes  merely 
neuter ;  as,  fondling,  one  who  is  fonded  or  fondled  ;  foster- 
ling ;  hireling ;  nursling  ;  suckling,  one  that  sucks ;  tanling  ; 
weanling. 

Comp.  Anglo  Sax.  fosterling  from  fostrian,  to  foster;  hyr- 
ling,  a  hireling;  Germ,  abkommling,  a  descendant;  lehrling,  a 
pupil;  miethling,  a  hireling;  pflegling,  a  ward;  sdugling,  a 
suckling ;  strafling,  a  culprit ;  taufling,  a  baptized  person  : 
zogling,  a  pupil. 

^8.  The  suffix  ling,  annexed  to  adjectives  or  participles,  de- 
notes an  individual  person,  possessing  the  essential  quality  de- 
noted by  such  adjective  or  participle ;  as,  darling  or  dearling, 
one  very  dear  ;  faintling ;  foundling;  tenderling;  weakling. 

Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  deorling,  a  darling,  from  deor,  dear ;  geong- 
ling,  a  youth  ;  Germ.fremdling,  a  stranger ;  jungling,  a  youth  ; 
liebling,  a  favorite ;  neuling,  a  novice ;  schwdchling,  a  weakly 
person;  sonderling ,  a  singular  person;  weichling,  a  tenderling; 
Swed.  vekling,  a  weakling. 

3.  The  suffix  ling-,  annexed  to  substantives,  denotes  an  indi- 
vidual person,  originating  from  or  dependent  on  the  thing  de- 
noted by  the  substantive ;   as,  earthling,  one  originating  from 
the  earth  ;  stripling,  worldling.     To  these  may  be  added  cham- 
berlain, which  is  derived  to  us  from  the  Teutonic  through  the 
French,  (comp.  Germ,  kdmmerling,  Ital.  camerlingo,  Fr.  cham- 
bellan.) 

Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  hceftling,  a  prisoner,  from  hceft,  bonds ; 
yrthling,  a  farmer ;  Germ.  fluchtling,  a  fugitive ;  gunstling,  a 
favorite ;  hdusling,  a  cottager ;  zuchtling,  a  correctioner. 

4.  The  three  preceding  varieties  of  meaning  are  transferred 
to  animals;  as,  (\.)  fledgeling;  gruntling;  suckling;  weanling; 
yeanling  ;    (2.)  failing  ;  firstling  ;  twinling  ;  youngling  ;   (3.) 
groundling;  nestling;  yearling. 

Comp.  Germ,  hdnfling,  a  linnet,  from  hanf,  flax ;  jdhrling,  a 
yearling ;  nestling. 

5.  The  three  first  varieties  of  meaning  are  transferred  to  inani- 
mate things;  as,  (1.)  castling;  (3.)  sapling;  seedling;  silverling. 

Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  feorthling,  a  farthing  ;  Germ,  fingerling, 
a  finger-stall;  schooling,  a  shoot ;  settling,  a  slip;  silberling, 
a  silverling. 


80  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

6.  The  three  first  varieties  of  meaning  are  employed  to  ex- 
press contempt;    as,  (1.)  changeling,  a  child  changed;  shave- 
ling; scatterling;  (2.)  dapperling;  fopling;  lordling;  (3.)  bant- 
ling; courtling;  groundling;  witling. 

Com  p.  Anglo-Sax.  nydling,  a  slave ;  rcepling,  one  bound  with 
a  rope;  Germ,  dichterling,  a  poetaster;  finsterling,  a  block- 
head; frommling,  a  hypocrite;  hbjling,  a  courtling;  rbmling, 
a  papist ;  sonderling,  a  singular  person ;  witzling,  a  witling. 

7.  This  suffix  forms  diminutives  from  names  of  men  and  ani- 
mals ;  as,  chickling,  a  chicken ;  codling,  a  young  cod  ;  duckling, 
a  young  duck ;  gosling,  a  young  goose  ;  kidling,  a  young  kid ; 
kitting,  a  young  kitten  ;  porkling,  a  pig.     So  lin  in  the  proper 
name  Tomlinson,  (as  if  son  of  little  Thomas.) 

Comp.  Anglo-Sax,  cncepling,  a  boy ;  Germ,  kindlein,  a  snrall 
child ;  kndblein,  a  boy;  kuchlein,  a  chicken ;  lammlein,  a  lamb- 
kin ;  mdgdelein,  a  girl;  mdnnlein,  a  little  man  ;  Swed.  kyckling, 
a  chicken ;  kidling,  a  young  kid ;  Dan.  kylling,  a  chicken  ; 
Icelandic  yrmlingr,  a  little  worm. 

Note. — It  is  not  certain  that  signification  No.  7.  is  connected 
with  the  preceding.  The  form  of  the  suffix  in  German  seems 
to  point  to  a  distinct  origin ;  while  the  fact  that  the  form  ling 
is  found  in  this  signification  in  Icelandic,  Anglo-Saxon,  Swed- 
ish, Danish,  and  English,  favors  its  sameness. 

July  26.  1843. 

L.     THE  ENGLISH  FORM  IN  ing. 

(Comp.  pp.  27,  28.) 

As  the  use  of  the  termination  ing  in  English  is  very  com- 
plicated, it  seems  necessary  to  distinguish  clearly  the  different 
purposes  for  which  it  is  employed. 

The  English  form  in  ing  is  used  to  denote  three  different 
kinds  of  words,  or  parts  of  speech,  viz.  the  adjective  participial, 
the  substantive  participial,  and  the  abstract  verbal  noun. 

I.  The  adjective  participial  in  ing,  or   what  is  commonly 
called  the  present  active  participle.     The  consideration  of  this 
participle  comes  under  the  inflection  and  not  the  formation  of 
words.     For  a  full  account  of  the  specific  uses  of  this  participle, 
see  Philol.  Stud.  p.  87. 

II.  The  substantive  participial  in  ing.     This  differs  entirely 
from  the  preceding  in  that  it  denotes  the  abstract,   and  not  the 
concrete.     While  it  has,  like  the  adjective  participial,  the  rec- 
tion  of  the  verb,  it  is  supposed  not  to  admit  an  article,  an 


APPENDIX.  81 

attributive,  or  a  genitive,  before  it.  The  consideration  of  it 
conies  also  under  the  inflection  and  not  the  formation  of  words. 
Its  original  use  seems  to  have  been  that  of  a  supine,  (i.  e.  of  an 
oblique  case  of  the  infinitive,)  but  there  is  a  strong  disposition 
in  language  to  extend  its  use  almost  indefinitely.  See  Philol. 
Stud.  p.  101. 

III.  The  abstract  verbal  noun.  This  differs  entirely  from  the 
two  preceding,  and  is  in  no  sense  a  participial.  It  is  used 
freely  as  the  subject,  predicate,  or  object,  in  a  sentence.  Like 
any  other  verbal  noun,  it  may  receive  an  article,  attributive,  or 
genitive. 

Examples  of  the  Abstract  Verbal  Noun. 

The  worshipping  of  idols  is  forbidden. 

Covetousness  is  a  worshipping  of  idols. 

We  regard  the  worshipping  of  idols  as  sin. 

The  sailing  of  ships  in  winter  is  dangerous. 

This  is  useful  for  the  clear  understanding  of  God's  word. 

There  was  something  very  excellent  in  Christ's  preaching. 

This  was  said  in  the  philosopher's  hearing. 

M.  ADDITIONAL  REMARKS  ON  ABSTRACT  SUBSTANTIVES  IN  ness. 
(Comp.  p.  28.) 

1.  The  suffix  ness  is  primarily  and  properly  annexed  to  radi- 
cal adjectives  of  Teutonic  origin  ;  as,  lameness,  sweetness,  wide- 
ness,  softness,  thus  forming  primary  or  regular  derivatives. 

2.  The  suffix  ness  is  annexed  to  derivative  Teutonic  adjectives 
in  ed,fal,  ish,  less,  ly,  some,  ward,  and  y,  thus  forming  second- 
ary or  abnormal  derivatives.    Thus  wickedness^  cheerfulness,  etc. 

3.  Secondary  derivatives  thus  formed  accord  nearly  in  signi- 
fication with  the  nouns  from  which  the  adjectives  are  derived. 
The  meaning  only  is  more  specific  and  definite.     Thus  careful- 
ness and  care,  fearfulness  and  fear,  frightfulness   and  fright, 
neediness  and  need. 

4.  The  suffix  ness  is  annexed  also  to  adjectives  of  Latin  ori- 
gin, both  primitive  and  derivative ;   as,  crudeness,  copiousness. 
It  thus  forms  a  large  number  of  words  which  are  peculiar  to 
the  English  language. 

5.  It  forms  synonyms  in  this  way  ;  as,  crudeness  and  crudity, 
su$)erfluousness  and  superfluity,  pureness  and  purity,  etc.     The 
former  noun  in  each  of  these  couplets  inclines  more  to  retain 
its  abstract  signification. 


82  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

6.  Many  nouns  formed  from  adjectives  in  this  way  accord 
nearly  with  the  Latin  substantives  from  which  the  adjectives  are 
derived,  thus  exhibiting  a  singular  phenomenon  in  language. 
Compare  morbidness  with  Lat.  mcrbus,  copiousness  with  Lat. 
copia,  judiciousness  with  Lat.  judicium.     The  meaning,  how- 
ever, is  somewhat  more  abstract. 

7.  Abstract  nouns  in  ness  never  receive  an  additional  suffix. 
The  genitive  or  possessive  case,  where  it  is  wanted,  is  expressed 
by  a  simple  apostrophe ;    as,  "  for  righteousness'  sake."     The 
plural  occurs  in  the  Bible  in  some  unfortunate  imitations  of  the 
Hebrew ;    as,  forgivenesses,  Dan.  ix.  9  ;    righteousnesses,   Isa. 
Ixiv.  6  ;  Ezek.  xxxiii.  13  ;  Dan.  ix.  18. 

8.  This  suffix  interchanges  (1.)   with  the  suffix  hood;    as, 
goodness,  Germ,  gutheit ;    highness,  Germ,  hoheit ;    (2.)  with 
the  suffix  th  ;  as,  foulness  and  filth,  highness  and  height ;  (3.) 
with  the  rare  suffix  ledge;    as,  knowledge,  Germ,  kenntniss ; 
and   (4.)  with  the  radical  noun ;    as,  goodness  and  good,  hot- 
ness  and  heat ;  hardness,  Germ,  hdrte  ;   mildness,  Germ,  milde. 

9.  These  three  words  require  a  more  special  notice. 

(1.)  Seedness,  an  obsolete  word  denoting  u  seed-time,'*  is 
probably  a  corruption  of  Anglo-Sax,  scednadh,  and  therefore 
does  not  belong  here. 

(2.)  Wilderness,  (Dutch  wildernis,  Germ,  wildniss,)  "a  des- 
ert," has  been  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived  from  Anglo-Sax. 
wi/d-deor,  u  wild  animal ;"  but  is  probably  i.  q.  wildness,  with 
epenthetic  syllable  er. 

(3.)  Witness,  (Anglo-Sax,  witnes,)  is  probably  from  the  ob- 
solete verb  to  wit.  In  use  it  denotes  "  testimony,"  "  the  person 
giving  testimony,"  and  is  also  used  as  a  verb. 

Febr.  1847. 

N.    ABSTRACT  SUBSTANTIVES  IN  dom. 
(Comp.  p.  28.) 

Corresponding  forms. — Sansk.  tvan;  Lat.  tium  ;  Old  Germ. 
duam,  duom,  tuam,  tuom,  toam;  Old  Norse  domr;  Anglo-Sax. 
dom;  Germ,  thum;  Swed.  dom,  doeme;  Dan.  dom;  Dutch 
dom. 

Origin. — This  suffix  is  derived,  according  to  some,  from  An- 
glo-Sax, dom,  law,  judgment;  and  this  from  Goth,  domjan, 
Eng.  doom,  to  judge,  rule.  But  the  corresponding  Sanskrit  and 
Latin  forms,  and  its  various  uses,  render  this  derivation  improb- 


APPENDIX.  83 

able.  Oswald's  derivation  from  Latin  domus,  a  house,  is  alto- 
gether unfounded. 

Signification. — This  suffix  is  employed  to  form  abstract  nouns 
from  adjectives  and  attributives,  and  denotes  (1.)  the  quality; 
as,  wisdom;  (2.)  an  act;  as,  martyrdom,  cuckoldom ;  (3.)  the 
state  ;  as,  freedom,  thraldom;  (4.)  the  condition  ;  as,  birthdom  ; 
(5.)  appurtenances  or  possessions;  as,  princedom,  dukedom; 
(6.)  by  a  metonymy  of  the  abstract,  also  the  collective  con- 
crete ;  as,  Christendom,  peerdom. 

Examples.  —  Birthdom,  Christendom,  cuckoldom,  dukedom, 
earldom,  freedom,  kingdom,  martyrdom,  peerdom,  popedom, 
princedom,  sheriffdom,  thraldom,  whoredom,  wisdom. 

Remark. — This  suffix  interchanges  (1.)  with  suffix  hood ;  as, 
Eng.  wisdom,  Germ,  weisheit ;  (2^)  with  suffix  ric ;  as,  Anglo- 
Sax.  Ushopdom,  Eng.  bishopric;  (3.)  with  suffix  ship;  as,  Anglo- 
Sax,  abbotdom,  Eng.  abbotship. 

Nov.  18.  1837. 

O.   ABSTRACT  SUBSTANTIVES  IN  hood  OR  head. 

(Comp.  p.  29.) 
1  forms. — Old  Germ,  heit,  Jceit ;  Old  Sax.  hed  ; 


Corresponding  f 
Anglo-Sax,  had; 


Germ,  heit,  keit ;  Swed.  het ;  Dan.  hed ; 
Dutch  heid. 

Origin. — Meidinger  compares  Old  Germ,  heit,  a  person,  and 
illustrates  its  use  b}^  Germ,  schonheit,  a  beauty,  i.  e.  a  beautiful 
person.  But  this  is  altogether  unsatisfactory.  Dr.  Webster 
derives  it  from  Anglo-Sax,  had,  state,  habit,  condition,  and  this 
from  Anglo-Sax,  hadian,  to  ordain,  as  if  to  set  or  place.  In  this 
he  is  more  successful. 

Signification. — This  suffix  is  employed  to  form  abstract  nouns 
from  adjectives  and  attributives,  in  order  to  denote  (1.)  the 
nature  or  essence;  as,  godhead;  (2.)  the  quality ;  as,  hardi- 
hood, lustihood  ;  (3.)  the  state ;  as,  boyhood,  childhood;  (4.) 
the  condition  ;  as,  knighthood,  priesthood ;  (5.)  by  a  metonymy 
of  the  abstract  for  the  concrete,  something  possessing  the  qual- 
ity; as,  falsehood;  (6.)  by  a  metonymy  of  the  abstract,  also 
the  collective  concrete;  as,  neighborhood,  sisterhood ;  (7.)  by  a 
metonymy  of  the  effect  for  the  cause,  the  means  ;  as,  livelihood. 

Examples  of  suffix  hood :  boyhood,  brotherhood,  childhood, 
falsehood,  hardihood,  knighthood,  likelihood,  livelihood,  lusti- 
hood,  maidenhood,  manhood,  neighborhood,  priesthood,  sister- 


84  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

hood,  widowhood,  zeomanhood.  Examples  of  suffix  head :  god- 
head, hardihead,  maidenhead  ;  also,  Old  Eng.  brotherhede,  bisy- 
hed,  boldehed,fairehed,  wighthede,  yunghead. 

Remark. — This  suffix  interchanges  (1.)  with  suffix  dom  ;  as, 
Germ.  Christenheit,  Eng.  Christendom;  Germ,  weisheit,  Eng. 
wisdom  ;  Germ,  freiheit,  Eng.  freedom  ;  (2.)  with  suffix  ness; 
as,  Germ,  gutheit,  Eng.  goodness;  (3.)  with  suffix  ship;  as, 
Eng.  brotherhood,  Germ,  bruderschaft. 

Nov.  18.  1837. 

P.    ABSTRACT  SUBSTANTIVES  IN  ship  OR  scape. 

(Comp.  p.  30.) 

Corresponding  forms. — Old  Germ,  scaf;  Old  Sax.  scepi;  An- 
glo-Sax, sceaft,  scype,  scipe;  Old  Norse  sJcapr ;  Germ,  schaft ; 
Swed.  sJcap ;  Dan.  skab ;  Dutch  sea}),  schap. 

Origin. — This  suffix  is  derived  from  Goth.  sJcapan;  Old 
Germ,  scaffan;  Anglo-Sax,  sceapan,  scyppan;  Old  Norse  skapa, 
skipa  ;  Germ,  schaffen ;  Swed.  skapa;  Dan.  skabe ;  Dutch 
scheppen;  Eng.  to  shape;  and  denotes  the  make  or  shape. 

Signification. — This  suffix  denotes  (1.)  the  state;  as,  friend- 
ship; (2.)  an  act;  as,  courtship;  (3.)  the  condition;  as,  ward- 
ship; (4.)  appurtenances  or  possessions;  as,  lordship;  (5.)  by 
a  metonymy  of  the  cause,  the  effect  •,  as,  workmanship, 

Examples  of  suffix  ship  :  Apprenticeship,  bachelorship,  canon- 
ship^  captainship,  censorship,  chancellorship,  chaplainship,  clerk- 
ship, comptroller  ship,  copartnership,  counsellor  ship,  courtship, 
controller  ship,  deaconship,  dictatorship,  executorship,  guardian- 
ship, fellowshij),  friendship,  hardship,  horsemanship,  kingship, 
ladyship,  lordship,  lieutenants!^,  partnership,  prenticeship,  pro- 
fessorship, rectorship,  rivalship,  scholarship,  sergeantship,  sol- 
diership, sonship,  stewardship,  seer  etari  ship,  surveyor  ship,  sure- 
tiship,  survivorship,  township,  vicarskip,  worship,  wardship, 
sherijfship,  rivalship,  workmanship.  Example  of  suffix  scape : 
landscape. 

Remark. — This  suffix  interchanges  (1.)  with  suffix  hood ;  as, 
Germ,  bruderschaft,  Eng.  brotherhood ;  (2.)  with  suffix  dom; 
as,  Eng.  abbotship,  Anglo-Sax,  abbotdom. 

Nov.  18.  1837. 


APPENDIX.  85 

Q.   ABSTRACT  SUBSTANTIVES  IN  th  OR  I  FROM  VERBS. 
(Comp.  p.  30.) 

1.  Bight,  literally  a  bending,  from  to  bow,  (Anglo-Sax,  bu- 
gan,)  to  bend ;  hence,  a  bay. 

2.  Birth,  a  bearing  or  being  born,  from  to  bear. 

3.  Berth,  strictly  another  form  of  birth  ;   hence  the  station 
of  a  ship  at  anchor  or  by  the  wharf. 

4.  Blowth,  a  blossoming,  from  to  blow,  to  blossom. 

5.  Broth,  literally  a  boiling  and  mixing,  from   to  brew,  to 
boil  and  mix ;  hence  liquor  in  which  flesh  is  boiled  and  mac- 
erated. 

6.  Death,  a  dying,  from  to  die. 

7.  Draught,  a  drawing,  from  to  drag  or  draw. 

8.  Draft,  strictly  another  form  of  draught,  but  used  with 
discrimination. 

9.  Earth,  literally  a  plowing,  from  to  ear,  to  plow  :  hence 
what  is  plowed,  or  the  ground. 

10.  Flight,  a  flying  or  a  fleeing,  from  to  fly,  or  to  flee,  (An- 
glo-Sax, fleogan,  to  fly,  to  flee.) 

11.  Growth,  a  growing,  from  to  grow. 

12.  Might,  a  being  able,  from  may,  to  be  able,  (Anglo-Sax. 
magan.) 

13.  Ruth,  a  rueing,  from  to  rue. 

14.  Sight,  a  seeing,  from  to  see,  (Anglo-Sax,  seon,  to  see, 
past  participle  seogen,  seen. 

15.  Spilth,  literally  a  spilling,  from  to  spill;   hence  any 
thing  spilt.     Now  obsolete. 

16.  Stealth,  a  stealing,  from  to  steal. 

17.  Tilth,  a  tilling,  from  to  till. 

18.  Weight,  literally  a  weighing,    from  to  weigh;   hence 
what  any  thing  weighs. 

On  this  beautifully  symmetrical  formation  I  observe — 

1.  That  the  suffix  is  uniformly  th,  except  when  preceded  by 
an  original  palatal  g,  which  has  now  lost  its  sound.     In  this 
case  the  suffix  is  written  ht ;   as,  bight,  draught,  flight,  might, 
sight,  weight. 

2.  That  this  formation   accords  with   the  other  Teutonic 
dialects. 

Compare  Dutch  bogt,  geboorte,  dood,  dragt,  aarde,  vlugt, 
magt,  zigt,  wigt. 

8 


86  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

Also  Anglo-Sax,  byht,  a  corner ;  beorth,  broth,  death,  eorth, 
fliht,  miht,  gesiht,  wiht. 

Also  Germ,  bucht,  geburt,  bluthe,  tod,  erde,  flucht,  macht, 
gesicht,  gewicht. 

3.  That  the  original  vowel  is  attenuated  or  shortened ;  as, 
birth,  berth,  death,  earth,  stealth.    Except  when  an  original  con- 
sonant vocalizes,  and  uniting  with  the  preceding  vowel  sound, 
preserves  it  long ;   as,  bight,  draught,  flight,  might,  sight,  weight. 

4.  That  this  suffix  primarily  denotes  the  action  of  the  verb, 
taken  abstractly,  from  which  the  other  senses  are  derived  by 
metonymy. 

5.  That  the  attempt  of  Home  Tooke,  Dr.  Chas.  Richardson, 
and  others  to  identify  this  suffix  with  the  termination  of  the 
third  person  singular  in  verbs,  as  if  birth  means  that  which 
beareth ;    broth,  that  which  one  breweth ;    death,  that  which 
deadeth ;    earth,   that  which  one  eareth,  etc.  is  ridiculously 
absurd. 

May  15,  1844. 

R.     ABSTRACT  SUBSTANTIVES  IN  th  or  I  FROM  ADJECTIVES. 
(Comp.  p.  30.) 

1.  Breadth  from  broad. 

2.  Dearth  from  dear. 

3.  Depth  from  deep. 

4.  Drought  from  dry. 

5.  Filth  from  foul. 

6.  Health  from  hale  or  hail. 

7.  Height  from  high. 

8.  Length  from  long. 

9.  Sleight  from  sly. 

10.  Sloth  from  slow. 

11.  Strength  from  strong. 

12.  Truth  or  troth  from  true. 

13.  Warmth  from  warm. 

14.  Width  from  wide. 

15.  youth  from  young. 

On  this  beautifully  symmetrical  formation,  I  observe — 
1.  That  the  suffix  is  uniformly  th,   except  when  preceded  by 
an  original  palatal  g,  (not  the  nasal  ng,)  which  has  now  lost 
its  sound.     In  this  case,  the  suffix  is  written  ht ;    as,  drought, 
height,  sleight. 


APPENDIX. 


87 


2.  That  this  formation  accords  better,  whatever  may  be  the 
cause,  with  the  Dutch,  than  with  any  other  Teutonic  language ; 
compare   Dutch   breedte,  dierte,  dieple,   drogte,  etc.      This 
suffix,  however,  is  found  in  all  the  Teutonic  dialects,  and  is 
radically  connected  with  the  suffix  ty  or  ity,  in  words  derived 
from  the  Latin ;  as,  chastity,  crudity,  density,  etc. 

3.  That  the  original  vowel  is  attenuated  or  shortened ;   as, 
dear,  dearth ;   wide,  width.     Except  when  an  original  conso- 
nant vocalizes,  and  uniting  with  the  preceding  vowel  sound, 
preserves  it  long ;  as  drought,  height. 

4.  That  this  suffix  primarily  denotes  the  abstract  quality, 
taken  grammatically  as  a  substantive,  from  which  the  other 
senses  are  derived  by  a  regular  analogy. 

5.  That  the  attempt  of  Home  Tooke,  Dr.  Charles  Eichard- 
son,  and  others,  to  identify  this  suffix  with  the  termination  of 
the  third  person  singular  in  verbs,  as  if  dearth  means  *  that 
which  deareth ;'  drought,  '  that  which  drieth ;'   truth,  '  that 
which  troiveth ;'  etc.  is  ridiculously  absurd. 

Ap.  1.  1843. 

S.     THE  PREFIX  be  or  by. 

(Corap.  p.  37.) 

The  English  prefix  le,  (Goth.  U,  Old  Germ,  li,  pi,  Old  Sax. 
li,  Anglo-Sax,  be,  Germ,  le,  Swed.  le,  Dan.  le,  Dutch  be,)  is 
in  its  origin  the  same  as  the  particle  of  place  by,  and  was  pri- 
marily combined  with  verbs,  in  order  to  particularize  the  action 
contained  in  them,  by  specifying  the  place  or  direction.  Its 
import  has  since  been  variously  modified.  Its  present  uses 
may  be  classified  as  follows : 

I.  Prefixed  to  verbs  intransitive,  it  renders  them  transitive ; 
as,  bechance,  to  chance  by  or  near  any  one,  i.  e.  to  happen  to 
him  ;  become,  to  come  by  or  near  any  thing,  i.  e.  to  be  changed 
into  it,  also  to  befit  it ;    bedabble,  befall,  beget,  belie,  bemoan, 
beseem,  besort,  bespawl,  bethink,  bewail,  beweep. 

Note  1. — Some  of  these  verbs  are  used  transitively  without 
the  prefix ;  as,  dabble,  get,  seem.  Especially  in  poetry ;  as, 
moan,  wail.  But  this  does  not  affect  the  correctness  of  our 
explanation. 

II.  Prefixed  to  transitive  verbs,  it  changes  the  direction  of 
the  transitive   relation;    as,  ledrop,  begird,  to  bind  with  a 
girdle,  behave,  behold,  bequeath,  bereave,  beseech,  beset,  le- 
spalter,  bespeak,  bespit,  bespread,  besprinkle,  bestow,  bestrew, 
betake,  betray. 


88  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

Note  2. — Some  of  these  verbs  are  used  in  both  senses  with- 
out the  prefix ;  as,  gird,  spatter,  spread,  sprinkle,  strew.  But 
this  does  not  affect  the  correctness  of  our  explanation. 

III.  Prefixed  to  some  transitive  verbs,  it  does  not  affect  their 
general  import,  but  only  gives  them  more  emphasis ;  which 
emphasis  seems  to  lie  in  spreading  the  action  of  the  verb  over 
the  whole  object ;    as,  becharm,  bedazzle,  bedaub,  bedeck,  be- 
drench,  behead,   bepraise,  besiege,   besmear,  bespangle,  be- 
speckle,  bespice,  bespot. 

Note  3. — Sometimes  the  simple  verb  is  not  in  use ;  as  in 
begin,  behoove,  believe,  betray. 

IV.  Prefixed  to  nouns,  it  forms  transitive  verbs  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  preceding. 

1.  Prefixed  to  common  nouns;    as,  becloud,  to  cover  with 
clouds,  bedew,  beguile,  behoney,  beleaguer,  lesnuff,  betroth.  . 

2.  Prefixed  to  attributives ;  as,  becalm,  to  make  calm,  bedim, 
befriend,  to  put  by  or  with  friends,  bemad,  besot,  bewitch. 

Note  4. — These  formations,  which  were  anciently  very  nu- 
merous, remain  to  the  present  day,  particularly  (1.)  in  partici- 
ples; as,  beblubbered,  bedight,  beholden,  beloved,  bestead,  be- 
tumbled;  (2.)  in  reflexive  verbs;  as,  to  behave  one's  self;  to 
bemoan  one's  self;  to  bestir  one's  self;  to  bethink  one's  self; 
and  (3.)  to  express  derision  or  contempt ;  as,  becurl,  bemuffle, 
bepraise. 

Note  5. — In  all  the  preceding  uses,  the  particle  be  has  lost 
to  the  mental  conception  its  original  force,  as  denoting  place ; 
and  has  also  lost  its  tone,  and  become  a  mere  prefix. 

Note  6. — When  the  preposition  retains  its  original  signifi- 
cancy  of  place,  it  is  then  written  by,  and  retains  the  tone ;  as, 
by -gone,  by -past,  by -slander.  The  origin  of  by  in  by-way, 
by-word,  etc.  is  not  clear. 

V.  The  prefix  be  is  used  in  certain  contractions,  which  are 
not  proper  compositions. 

1.  Before  certain  particles  or  adjectives  of  place ;  as,  beneath, 
(Anglo-Sax,  benydan,)  below,    before,   (Anglo-Sax,  beforan,) 
behind,   (Anglo-Sax,  behindan,)    beyond,   (Anglo-Sax,  begeon- 
dan ;)    also,  but,  (Anglo-Sax,  butan,)   about,  (Anglo-Sax,  alu- 
tan,)  above,  (Anglo-Sax,  abufan). 

2.  Before  nouns  of  place  and  other  nouns ;  as,  because,  by 
the  cause  or  reason  ;  bechance,  by  chance  ;  beside,  by  the  side ; 
betimes,  by  times ;  between  and  betwixt,  by  the  two. 

May  30.  1845. 


APPENDIX.  89 

T.     THE  PREFIX  for. 
(Comp.  p.  37.) 

The  inseparable  preposition  for  primarily  denotes  forth  or 
away,  and  is  probably  connected  with  the  verb  fare,  (Anglo- 
Sax,  faran,  past  for,  part,  faren,)  to  go  on,  forth,  or  away. 
It  is  employed, 

1.  In  the  simple  sense  of  removal;    as,  Germ,  versenden, 
Anglo-Sax,  forsenden,  to  send  forth  or  away  ;  Germ,  vertrei- 
ben,  Anglo-Sax,  fordrifan,  Old  Eng.  fordrive,  to  drive  forth 
or  away ;    Germ,  verdammen,  Anglo-Sax,  fordeman,  to  deem 
or  doom  away,  to  condemn ;  Germ,  verbieten,  Anglo-Sax,  for- 
beodan,  Eng.  forbid,  to  bid  forth  or  away,  to  prohibit;  Anglo- 
Sax,  forberan,  Eng.  forbear,  to  bear  forth,  hold  from,  abstain; 
Anglo-Sax,  forsacan,  Eng.  forsake,  to  seek  away,  to  desert ; 
Old  Eng.  forhail,  to  hale  or  drag  away. 

2.  With  the  accessory  idea  of  disappearing;   as,  Germ,  ver- 
rauchen,  to  reek  away,  to  evaporate ;  Germ,  versinken,  to  sink 
away,  to  disappear ;  Germ,  verspielen,  to  play  away,  to  lose 
by  playing;  Germ,  vergleichen,  to  level  away ;    Germ,  verge- 
ben,  Anglo-Sax,  forgifan,  Eng.  forgive,  to  give  away,  or  out 
of  sight,  (comp.  Lat.  remitto,  Fr.  pardonner ;)  Germ,  verges- 
sen,  Anglo-Snx.forgit.an,  Eng.  forget,  to  get,  i.  e.  let  go  away, 
to  lose  from  the  mind ;    Germ,  verthun,   Anglo-Sax,  for  don, 
Old  Eng.  fordo,  to  do  away,  to  undo. 

3.  With  the  accessory  idea  of  going  wrong  (i=.  astray ;)  as, 
Germ,  verleiten,  Anglo-Sax,  forlcedan,  to  lead  astray ;    Eng. 

forjudge,  to  judge  wrongfully;  Anglo-Sax,  forswerian,  Eng. 
forswear,  to  swear  falsely. 

4.  With  the  accessory  idea  of  entireness  (=r  off,  out,  utterly;) 
as,  Old  Eng.  forbuy,  to  buy  off;  Old  Eng.  forbreak,  to  break 
off;  Old  Eng.  forcarve,  to  carve  off;  Old  Eng.  forcut,  to  cut 
off;  Old  Eng.  forwear,  to  wear  out;    Old  Eng.  forweary,  to 
weary  out;    Old  Eng.  fordrunken,  utterly  drunken;  Old  Eng. 

fordry,  utterly  dry;  Old  Eng.  forbalJied,  utterly  bathed;  Old 
Eng.  forlore  and  forlorn,  utterly  lost. 

Besides  these  uses,  the  prefix  for  has  sometimes  the  signifi- 
cation of  the  preposition  for;  as,  forsooth;  and  sometimes 
the  import  of  fore  ;  as,  forlie,  forward  ;  Old  English,  for- 
gherd,  the  fore  yard. 

March  21.  1840. 

8* 


90  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

U.     THE  ENGLISH  PREFIX  a. 
(Comp.  p.  37.) 

The  prefix  a,  which  occurs  so  often  in  English,  has  different 
origins  and  uses,  which  need  to  be  carefully  distinguished.  We 
propose  to  attempt  a  scientific  classification. 

I.  The  Anglo-Saxon  prefix  a  or  ge,  (z=Goth.  ga,  Old  Sax. 
gi,  Fries,  ie,  Old  Germ.  ka,  ki,  Germ,  ge,)  originally  equivalent 
to  Lat.  co  or  con,  and  signifying  with,  together  with. 

This  prefix  is  of  very  extensive  use  in  the  Teutonic  dialects, 
and  sometimes  of  difficult  explanation.  It  is  found  attached 
(1.)  to  substantives ;  as,  Germ,  gespiele,  a  playfellow,  from  spie- 
len,  to  play ;  (2.)  to  verbs,  where  it  sometimes  has  its  natural 
force ;  as,  Goth,  gabairan,  to  bring  together,  to  compare,  from 
lairan,  to  bear ;  Germ,  gefrieren,  to  congeal,  from  /Keren, 
to  be  cold  ;  but  often  is  a  mere  intensive,  without  special  sig- 
nificancy ;  as,  Germ,  gedenken  and  denken,  to  think;  and  (3.) 
to  passive  participles,  in  German  and  Dutch,  as  a  mere  inflec- 
tionary  process ;  as,  Germ,  geliebt,  loved. 

1.  As  attached  to  substantives,  we  have  no  appropriate  ex- 
ample in  English. 

2.  As  attached  to  verbs  in  English,  it  seems  everywhere  to 
have  lost  its  significancy. 

To  abare,  obsolete,  to  make  bare,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  abarian. 

To  abide,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  gebidan,  abidan,  bidan,  also 
anbidan. 

To  abrook,  obsolete,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  gebrucan,  brucan. 

To  affright  for  to  af right,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  gefrihtan, 
aforhtian,  frihtan,  for/itian. 

To  agaze,  obsolete,  (whence  past  participle  ogast  or  aghast,) 
comp.  Anglo-Sax,  egesian,  to  affright. 

To  alegge,  obsolete,  to  diminish,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  alecgan. 

To  arise,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  arisan,  Goth,  urreisan  for  us- 
re  is  an,  Dutch  opryzen. 

To  arouse,  connected  with  to  arise. 

To  ashame,  obsolete,  comp.  Anglo- Sax.  gescamian,  asca- 
mian,  scamian. 

To  aslake,  obsolete,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  asclacian,  slacian. 

To  awake,  comp.  Angio-Sax.  awcecan,  wacan,  also,  omccec- 
nian,  Germ,  erwachen. 

Note. — Grimm  early  made  the  suggestion  that  Anglo-Sax. 
a.  and  of  course  Eng.  a,  when  it  is  analogous,  corresponds  to 


APPENDIX.  91 

Goth,  us,  out,  or  Germ.  er.  See  Deutsche  Gram.  II.  (1826.) 
p.  819,  821,  827.  He  is  followed  by  Rask,  Anglo-Sax.  Gram. 
(1830.)  p.  99,  Von  Richthofen,  Altfries.  Worterb.  p.  586.  Hens- 
leigh  Wedgwood,  Esq.  Diet.  Eng.  Etym.  I.  1.  (1859).  But  I 
find  no  clear  example  in  English,  and  besides  the  change  would 
be  rather  a  mutilation,  than  a  natural  development. 

3.  Prefixed,  or  rather  retained  before  certain  past  participles 
of  Teutonic  origin,  to  avoid  cacophony;    as,  adread,  (Anglo- 
Sax,  adred,  from  the  verb  andradan,  ondrcedan,  adrcedan;) 
adrift,  (Anglo-Sax,  gedrifen,  adrifen,  adrefed,  drifen;)  adry, 
(Anglo-Sax,  adruged ;)  afloat,  (Anglo-Sax,  floten ;)  agast  or 
aghast,  see  to  agaze,  supra;  ago  and  agone,  (Anglo-Sax,  agan, 
gan  ;)    along  of,  owing  to,    (Anglo-Sax,   gelang  or  gelenge, 
owing  to ;)  aloof;   aloud,  (Anglo-Sax,  hlud ;)  amiss,   (comp. 
Anglo-Sax,   missian ;)    askew,    (Dan.  skievt,  awry;)  aslant, 
(comp.  Swed.  slinta,  to  slip ;)  aslope,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  ash- 
pan,  to  slip  away;)  aslug ;  aswoon,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  aswu- 
nan,  to  swoon  ;)  astray,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  astregd,  to  strew  ;) 
athwart,  (Swed.  tvdrt ;)  aware,  (Germ,  gewahr,  Dutch  gewaar, 
Anglo-Sax,  gewar ;)   awry,  (Anglo-Sax,  gewrilhen,  atorithen, 
writhen,)  enough  for  anough,  (Germ,  genug,  Anglo-Sax,  genog, 
Fries,  anoch,  enoch,  Old  Eng.  ynow,  inouh,  ynough,  ynowgh, 
enow. 

4.  Prefixed   to    adjectives  of   various   origin  ;    as,  Across, 
(comp.  Fr.  en  croix,)  aflat,  afresh,  afoul,  ahungry,  (Anglo-Sax. 
hungrig,)  akin,  alate,  anew,  (comp.  Fr.  a  neuf,  Lat.  de  novo,) 
aweary,  (Anglo-Sax,  werig). 

II.  The  Anglo-Sax,  preposition  an  or  on,  on,  in  : 

1.  Attached  to  its  complement  or  noun,  and  forming  ad- 
verbs ;  as, 

Aback,  comp.  Anglo  Sax.  on  lac. 

Abed,  on  or  in  bed. 

Aboard,  comp.  Swed.  om  lord,  Fr.  abord. 

About,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  onbutan,  abutan,  also  embutan, 
ymbul.an,  Fries,  abuta. 

Above,  comp.  Anglo.Sax.  abufan,  bufan,  Fries,  abuppa. 

Abreast,  on  the  breast. 

Abroad,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  on  brcede,  in  breadth,  Chaucer 
on  brede  and  a  brede. 

Adays,  (see  supra  p.  66.)  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  on  dag,  by  day. 

Afield,  in  the  field. 

Afire,  on  fire,  comp.  Germ,  im  brande,  Fr.  en  feu. 

Afoot,  on  foot. 


92  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH   WORDS. 

Afore,  before,  comp.  Fries,  afar  a. 

Again  and  against,  (see  supra,  p.  69,  70.)  comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
angean,  ongean,  agean,  agen,  gean ;  Fries,  aien,  agen,  aiun ; 
also  Germ,  gegen. 

Aground,  on  the  ground. 

A  head,  in  advance. 

A/ieight  and  ahigh,  on  high. 

Aland,  on  the  land. 

Alive,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  on  life,  R.  Brunne  o  life,  Gower 
o/i  live,  Richardson  alife. 

Aloft,  on  high,  comp.  Svved.  a  loft,  R.  Brunne  o  loft,  Gower 
upon  loft. 

Along  and  alongst,  (see  supra,  p.  70.)  on  the  length,  comp. 
Anglo-Sax,  on  lenge,  andlang,  andlong,  Fries,  aling,  alinga, 
Dutch  onlangs,  Old  Eng.  endlong,  Chaucer  on  length,  Fr.  au 
long.  This  word  is  entirely  different  from  along  of,  owing  to, 
supra. 

Amid  and  amidst,  (see  supra,  p.  71.)  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  on 
middan,  Chaucer  amiddes. 

Among  and  amongst,  (see  supra,  p.  70.)  comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
onmang,  amang,  also  gemang,  gemong,  past  participle  ge- 
menged. 

Anights,  (see  supra,  p.  67.)  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  on  nihte, 
Gower  on  night. 

Apeak,  in  a  posture  to  pierce. 

Apiece s,  in  pieces. 

Aright,  comp.  Anglo- Sax.  on  rihte. 

Around,  in  a  circle. 

Arow,  in  a  row. 

Ashore,  on  shore. 

Aside,  comp.  Hall  on  side. 

Askant,  askance,  and  asquint,  (see  supra,  p.  67.)  comp. 
Dutch  schuins. 

Asleep,  comp.  Old  Eng.   on  slepe,  on  sleep. 

Astern,  on  the  stern. 

Astrut,  on  the  strut. 

Athirst,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  on  thurste. 

Atwixt,  (see  supra,  p.  70.)  between,  coinp.  Fries,  antwiska, 
ontwiska,  entwiska,  atwiska. 

Atwo,  in  two,  cornp.  Anglo-Sax,  on  twct ;  Fries,  on  twa, 
ontwa,  entwa,  atwa,  in  two. 

Away,  coinp.  Anglo-Sax,  anweg,  onweg,  aweg. 


APPENDIX. 


93 


Note. — Some  of  these  adverbs  pass  into  prepositions ;  as, 
aboard,  about,  afore,  amid  and  amidst,  around,  aside,  etc.  The 
adverbial  sense  should  be  placed  first.  The  dictionaries  call 
alive  an  adjective. 

2.  Used  as  an  adverb,  and  prefixed  to  the  present  participle ; 
as,  Adoing,  agoing,  asaying,  awriting,  etc.,  i.  e.,  doing  on,  going 
on,  saying  on,  writing  on,  etc.  Not  in  the  act  of  doing,  etc. 
as  usually  explained. 

III.  The  indefinite  article  a  or  an,  which  in  writing  has 
become  attached  to  its   noun;    as  apiece,  (comp.  a  dozen;) 
awhile,  (comp.  some  while,  one  while.) 

IV.  The  French  preposition  a,  or  Lat.  ad,  to : 

1.  In  words  derived  from  the*  French ;  as,  to  abase,  (comp. 
Fr.  abaisser,  as  if  mettre  a  has  ;)   to  abash,  a  later  form  of  to 
abase;   to  abate,  (comp.  Fr.  abattre ;)  adieu,  (comp.  Fr.  adieu, 

as  if  a  Dieu  ;)  to  ameliorate,  (comp.  Fr.  ameliorer  ;)  to  abandon, 
(comp.  Fr.  abandonner,  as  if  a  ban  donner ;)  to  achieve,  (comp. 
Fr.  achever,  from  a  chef ;)  alarm,  (comp.  Fr.  alarme  from  a 
Varme;)  to  amass  (comp.  Fr.  amasser;)  apart,  (comp.  Fr.  apart. 

2.  In  words  derived  from  the  Latin,  but  only  before  the  conso- 
nants sc;  as,  to  ascend,  (Lat.  ascendo;)  to  ascribe,  (Lat.  ascribo.) 

Note. — The  Latin  preposition  ad,  used  as  a  prefix,  is  usually 
written  ad,  or  else  with  an  assimilation  of  the  d  to  the  follow- 
ing letter ;  as,  adapt,  abbreviate,  accelerate,  adduce,  adequate, 
afflict,  aggravate,  adhere,  adjure,  allude,  admonish,  annotation, 
adorn,  appear,  acquire,  arrogant,  assent,  attract,  adustion,  advert. 

V.  The  Latin  preposition  a  or  ab,  from,  away,  but  only  before 
m  and  v  ;    as,  to  amove,  amotion,  amoval ;   to  avert,  aversion  ; 
avulsion. 

Note. — The  Latin  preposition,  a  or  ab,  as  a  prefix,  is  usually 
written  ab;  as,  abdicate;  aberration;  abhor;  abject;  ablative; 
abnegation;  abominate;  abrupt;  absolve;  sometimes abs ;  as, 
abscond  ;  abstain. 

VI.  The  Latin  preposition  e  or  ex,  out  of,  in  some  words 
derived  from  the  Latin  through  the  French ;  as,  to  amend,  (Fr. 
amender,  Lat.  emendo ;)  to  affray,  whence  afraid,  (Fr.  effrayer, 
Lat.  effrico.) 

VII.  The  Gr.  d  privative,  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek, 
but  only  before  consonants ;  as,  asylum,  asymmetry,  asymptote, 
asyndeton ;  ataraxy,  ataxy,  atom,  atony \  atrophy  ;  atheist. 

Note. — The  Greek  «  privative  is  written  an  before  vowels ; 
as,  anarchy;  anecdote;  anomaly;  anonymous. 


94  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

VIII.  The  Gr.  <i  copulative,  or  d  of  unity,  with,  together 
with  ;  as,  acolyth,  adelpkic. 

Note. — The  full  form  of  Gr.  d  copulative  is  «,««,  with,  together 
with,  allied  to  No.  I.  above ;  as,  hamadryad. 

^The  preceding  investigation  shows  in  a  strong  light  the 
mixed  character  of  the  English  language. 

This  article  was  first  published  in  the  Congregational  Observer 
of  May  1.  1841.  then  republished  in  Prof.  Fowler's  English 
Grammar,  Ed.  I.  New  York,  1850.  p.  367.  It  has  now  been 
revised,  and  corrected,  and  conformed  to  the  present  state  of 
English  philology. 

V.    THE  PREFIX  mis. 
(Comp.  p.  37.) 

1.  Corresponding  forms  in  other  languages. — Goth,  missa  ; 
Old  Germ,  missa,  missi,  misse,  mis ;     Germ,  misse,  miss ; 
Dutch  mis ;   Iceland,  mis ;    Svved.  miss ;    Dan.  mis ;    Anglo- 
Sax,  mis ;  Scotch  mys,  mis.     Comp.  Low  Lat.  mis ;  Proveng . 
mens,  mes  ;  Ital.  mis  ;  Span,  and  Portug.  menos  ;  Fr.  mes,  me. 
This  prefix  is  common  to  the  Teutonic  and  Latin  languages, 
but  derived  by  us  from  the  Teutonic. 

2.  Origin. — This  prefix  is  connected  on  the  one  side  with 
Old  Germ,  missan,  Germ,  and  Dutch  missen,  Iceland,  missa, 
Swed.  mista,  Dan.  misle,  Anglo-Sax,  missian,  Eng.  to  miss,  to 
be  wanting,   to  err,   to  fail ;    and  on  the  other  side  with  Gr. 
fuvt&w  Lat.  minuo,  to  lessen. 

3.  Signification. — (1.)    This  prefix  usually  signifies   amiss, 
wrong  ;  whether  in  a  physical  sense ;  as,  misshape,  to  shape 
ill ;  in  an  intellectual  sense ;  as,  mistake,  to  take  wrong ;   or  in 
a  moral  sense ;  as,  misdo,  to  do  wrong. 

(2.)  It  sometimes  gives  to  a  word  the  directly  opposite  sense, 
and  is  then  equivalent  to  the  prefix  un  or  dis  ;  as,  Goth,  mis- 
saleiks,  unlike,  different;  Germ,  misstrauen,  to  distrust;  Anglo- 
Sax,  miswurdhian,  to  dishonor ;  Fr.  meconnaitre,  to  forget ; 
Eng.  misaffect^  to  dislike ;  misattend,  to  neglect ;  misbecome, 
to  be  unbecoming;  misbeseem,  to  be  unfitting;  miscreant,  un- 
believing; misintelligence,  disagreement;  mislike,  to  dislike; 
misrule,  disorder ;  misseem,  to  bo  unbecoming ;  mistrust,  to 
distrust. 

(3.)  It  occurs  also  in  the  malformation  misdoubt,  as  if  to 
doubt  through  misbelief. 


APPENDIX.  95 

4.  Use. — The  words  compounded  with  this  prefix,  in  respect 
to  their  origin  and  their  relation  to  the  English  language,  may 
be  classified  and  arranged  as  follows : 

(1.)  Words  of  Teutonic  origin  :  (1.)  radical  verbs  with  the 
strong  or  internal  inflection,  and  their  compounds ;  as,  conjug. 
i.  misbecome,  misspeak;  conjug.  in.  misgive;  conjug.  iv. 
misshape,  misunderstand,  mistake  ;  conjug.  v.  miswrile ;  con- 
jug,  vi.  misc/wose ;  conjug.  vm.  misfall ;  (2.)  radical  verbs 
with  the  weak  or  external  inflection,  and  their  compounds ;  as, 
regular ;  miscall,  misdeem,  misbelieve,  mislike,  misseem,  mis- 
beseem,  misspell,  misbestow,  miswed,  misween ;  contracted 
and  irregular ;  miscast,  misdo,  mislay,  mislead,  missay,  mis- 
tell,  miswend ;  (3.)  radical  verbs  with  the  strong  and  weak 
inflection  united  in  the  same  form ;  as,  misteach,  misthink ; 
(4.)  substantives  and  adjectives  whose  radical  verbs  are  not 
found  with  this  prefix ;  as,  misborn,  misbegotten,  misfare,  mis- 
wrought  ;  (5.)  secondary  verbs  with  the  weak  inflection  ;  as, 
misground,  mishear,  misname,  mistime,  mistrust,  miskindle, 
misreckon. 

(2.)  Words  of  Latin  origin  disguised  or  mutilated  by  com- 
ing through  the  French:  (1.)  radical  verbs  and  their  com- 
pounds; as,  misconceive,  (*/ cap,)  misprise,  (pref.  wis+pref. 
pre  -f-  </  hend,)  misjoin,  (</  jug,)  misspend,  (pref.  mis -\- pref. 
ex  -f-  \/  pend,)  misapply,  (*/ plic,)  misemploy,  (\f  plic,)  mis- 
improve,  (\f  prob,)  miscount,  (pref.  mis  -\-  pref.  com-\-\S  put,) 
miscounsel,  (pref.  mis  +  pref.  con  +  \/sul,)  misvouch,  (\/voc) ; 
(2.)  substantives  and  adjectives  whose  verbal  roots  are  not 
found  with  this  prefix ;  as,  mischance,  (\/  cad,)  mischief,  (Lat. 
caput,)  misclaim,  (\/  clam,)  miscreant,  (</  cred,)  misfortune, 
(L&t.fors,)  misentry,  (L&t.intro,)  misallied,  (\/  lig,)  misrule, 
(\/  reg) ;  (3.)  secondary  and  compound  verbs  ;  as,  miscarry, 
mischarge,  misdoubt,  misfashion,  misgovern,  misjudge,  mis- 
remember,  mis  distinguish,  mistrain. 

(3.)  Words  of  Latin  origin  not  affected  by  coming  through 
the  French:  (1.)  verbs  formed  directly  from  the  Latin  present; 
as,  conjug.  in.  misinfer,  misapprehend,  misascribe,  miscon- 
strue, misatlend  ;  conjug.  i.  miscite,  misqffirm,  misform,  mis- 
inform, misallege,  misreport,  miscompute,  misrepute,  misob- 
serve,  misassign  ;  conjug.  iv.  misserve ;  (2.)  verbs  formed 
directly  from  the  Latin  supine;  as,  conjug.  in.  misconduct, 
misaffect,  miscorrect,  misdirect,  misinstruct,  misuse ;  conjug. 
i.  miscreate,  mistranslate ;  (3.)  substantives  and  adjectives 


96  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

whose  verbal  roots  are  not  found  with  this  prefix ;  as,  misac- 
ceplation,  (\/  cap,)  misintelligence,  (<</  leg,)  mis  disposition, 
(\/ pon,)  misdesert,  (</  serve,)  misadventure,  (\/  ven,)  mis- 
advised, (\/  vis,)  misdevotion,  (\/  vov) ;  (4.)  secondary  and 
compound  verbs;  as,  miscalculate,  misdate,  mis  conjecture, 
misestimate,  misinterpret,  misrepresent,  misquote,  misstate, 
mislemper,  misterm,  mistille,  mistutor. 

(4.)  Words  of  Greek  origin ;  as,  mischaracterize,  mis- 
zealous. 

(5.)  Words  of  French  origin  ;  as,  misaimed,  misguide,  mis- 
demean. 

W.    PRONOMINAL  ELEMENTS. 
(Comp.  p.  3.) 

The  plural  of  the  third  personal  pronoun  in  Anglo-Saxon  is 
nomin.  hi,  genit.  hira,  dat.  him,  accus.  hi;  in  Old  English 
nomin.  hi,  genit.  hire,  dat.  him,  accus.  hi.  Of  course  the  pres- 
ent forms,  .they,  their  or  theirs,  them,  are  comparatively  modern, 
as  implied  on  p.  3,  supra. 

Hi  dude  here  pelrynage,  (they  did  their  pilgrimage.) — MS.  in 
Harl.  Coll. 

Her  knaves  cryden,  (their  boys  cried.) — Piers  Plouhman. 

With  love  who  mihte  hem  bynde,  (who  may  them  with  love 
bind.) — Ancient  ballad  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

X.    TABLE  OF  ENGLISH  CORRELATIVES. 
(Comp.  p.  45.) 

THE  name  correlatives  is  given  to  certain  pronouns,  pronom- 
inal adjectives,  and  pronominal  adverbs,  which  have  a  reciprocal 
relation  to  each  other,  and  a  correspondence  in  their  forms  and 
significations. 

The  class  of  words  with  which  we  are  now  concerned,  are 
demonstratives,  in  the  general  sense,  inasmuch  as  they  do  not 
name  any  person,  thing,  quantity,  quality,  place,  or  time,  but 
only  demonstrate  or  point  to  it.  They  are  in  fact  impersonal 
and  unreal,  being  permanently  attached  to  no  person,  thing, 
quality,  etc.,  but  completely  abstract  or  vacillating. 

This  table  of  English  correlatives  is  extended  beyond  its  just 
or  natural  limits,  in  order  that  it  may  accord  with  the  tables  of 
Latin  and  Greek  correlatives,  as  they  are  usually  exhibited. 


APPENDIX. 


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98  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

The  I.  column  consists  of  nearer  demonstratives.  Comp.  Lat. 
hie,  Gr.  ovwg.  They  have  peculiar  ibrms  in  English;  (1.)  initial 
h,  as  in  here,  hither,  hence;  (2.)  the  form  this,  as  opposed  to 
that ;  (3.)  a  special  form,  as  now  ;  (4.)  forms  in  common  with 
column  II.  as  such,  so,  thus. 

The  II.  column  consists  of  remoter  demonstratives.  Comp. 
Lat.  iste  and  rtle,  Gr.  ixetvog.  They  have  peculiar  forms  in 
English  ;  (1.)  initial  th,  as  in  there,  thither,  thence,  then,  therefore; 
(2.)  the  form  that,  as  opposed  to  this  ;  (3.)  forms  in  common 
with  column  I.  as  such,  so,  thus. 

The  III.  column  consists  of  interrogatives.  Comp.  Lat.  quis? 
Gr.  Tig.  The  English  interrogative  element  hu  or  hw,  exhibits 
itself  here  under  three  different  aspects;  (1.)  in  ivhat,  which, 
whether,  where,  whither,  whence,  when,  why,  with  letters  trans- 
posed ;  (2.)  in  how,  when  there  is  no  transposition,  and  the 
sound  of  u  or  w  is  lost  in  that  of  the  diphthong  ow  ;  (3.)  in 
who,  where  the  transposition  takes  place,  and  the  "diphthong  uo 
or  wo  has  the  sound  of  oo  in  moon. 

The  IV.  column  consists  of  relatives.  Comp.  Lat.  qui,  Gr.  og. 
The  relative  element  in  English  is  for  the  most  part  the  same 
as  the  interrogative  differently  intonated.  The  adverb  of  man- 
ner and  degree  as  (for  also)  was  originally  a  demonstrative. 

The  V.  column  consists  of  extended  relatives  or  universal 
indefinites.  Comp.  Lat.  quicunque  and  quixquis.  Gr.  og  &t>. 
They  are  expressed  in  English  by  introducing  the  adverb  ever. 

The  VI.  column  consists  of  particular  indefinites.  Comp. 
Lat.  aliquis,  Gr.  Jig.  They  have  no  peculiar  form  in  English, 
but  are  expressed  by  means  of  the  pronominal  adjective  some. 
They  are  introduced  into  the  table,  in  order  to  conform  to  the 
tables  of  Latin  and  Greek  correlatives. 

The  VII.  column  consists  of  general  indefinites.  Comp.  Lat. 
quisquam,  Gr.  i!g.  They  are  expressed  for  the  most  part  in 
English  by  means  of  the  pronominal  adjective  any.  Only  the 
third  and  tenth  series  have  peculiar  forms ;  as  either,  (=.  any 
one  of  two;)  ever,  (-=.at  any  time). 

The  VIII.  column  consists  of  negatives,  the  direct  converse  of 
the  preceding  column.  Comp.  Lat.  nemo,  Gr.  oftng  and  ^r^rt-g. 
They  involve  for  the  most  part  in  English  the  negative  adjective 
of  quantity  no.  The  second,  third,  and  tenth  series  take  the 
simple  negative  elements;  as  naught,  (=.ne  aught ;)  neither, 
(==L7ie  cither  ;)  never,  (—ne  ever).  It  is  to  be  observed,  how- 
ever, that  the  negation  properly  belongs  to  the  predication  of 


APPENDIX.  99 

the  sentence,  and  that  these  words  are  of  the  same  nature  as 
those  of  the  preceding  class. 

The  first  row  or  series  consists  of  the  pure  pronoun  of  the 
person.  Comp.  Lat.  hie,  Gr.  OVTO;.  They  are  indicated  in 
English  sometimes  by  the  termination,  as  this,  that,  who;  and 
sometimes  by  a  distinct  word,  as  one  or  body. 

The  second  series  consists  of  the  pure  pronoun  of  the  thing. 
Comp.  Lat.  hoc,  Gr.  roDro.  They  are  indicated  in  English 
sometimes  by  the  termination,  as  this,  that,  what ;  and  some- 
times by  a  distinct  word,  as  thing. 

The  third  series  consists  of  adjectives  of  preference,  which 
combine  the  pronominal  idea  with  that  of  number.  Ccrnp.  Lat. 
alter,  Gr.  eregog.  They  are  indicated  in  English  sometimes  by 
the  form  of  comparatives,  as  other,  ivhether,  cither,  neither  ;  and 
sometimes  by  a  more  full  explanation,  as  which  (of  the  two ;) 
some  one  (of  the  two). 

The  fourth  series  consists  of  adjectives  of  quantity.  Comp. 
Lat.  tantus,  Gr.  rocrog.  They  have  no  peculiar  form  in  English, 
but  are  expressed  by  the  adjective  great,  variously  modified. 
They  are  introduced  into  the  table,  in  order  to  conform  to  the 
tables  of  Latin  and  Greek  correlatives. 

The  fifth  series  consists  of  adjectives  of  quality.  Comp.  Lat. 
tails,  Gr.  Trfilxoz.  They  have  sometimes  a  peculiar  form  in 
English,  as  in  columns  I.  and  II.  such;  but  usually  are  ex- 
pressed in  a  more  circuitous  way. 

The  sixth  series  consists  of  adverbs  of  the  place  where.  Comp. 
Lat.  hie,  Gr.  roth.  They  are  all  of  one  formation  in  English. 

The  seventh  series  consists  of  adverbs  of  the  place  whither. 
Comp.  Lat.  hue.  They  are  all  of  one  formation  in  English. 

The  eighth  series  consists  of  adverbs  of  the  place  whence. 
Comp.  Lat.  hinc,  Gr.  r6&ev.  They  are  for  the  most  part  of  one 
formation  in  English. 

The  ninth  series  consists  of  adverbs  of  the  place  by  or  through 
which.  Comp.  Lat.  hac,  Greek  ir(.  They  have  no  peculiar 
form  in  English,  but  are  expressed  in  a  more  circuitous  way. 
They  are  introduced  into  the  table,  in  order  to  conform  to  the 
table  of  Latin  and  Greek  correlatives. 

The  tenth  series  consists  of  adverbs  of  time.  Comp.  Lat. 
*nunc,  Gr.  vvv.  They  are  expressed  in  English  (I.)  by  a  peculiar 
termination,  as  then,  when;  (2.)  by  special  forms,  as  now,  ever  ; 
(3.)  more  circuitously,  as  some  time. 


100  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS. 

The  eleventh  series  consists  of  adverbs  of  repetition.  Comp. 
Lat.  toties,  Gr.  ioo&xig  They  have  no  peculiar  form  in  Eng- 
lish, but  are  expressed  by  means  of  the  adverb  often  or  the 
substantive  times.  They  are  introduced  into  the  table  in  order 
to  conform  to  the  tables  of  Latin  and  Greek  correlatives. 

The  twelfth  series  consists  of  adverbs  of  manner.  Comp. 
Lat.  ita  and  sic,  Gr.  ouiwj.  They  have  all  a  peculiar  formation 
in  English. 

The  thirteenth  series  consists  of  adverbs  of  the  cause  or  reason. 
Comp.  Lat.  cur  and  quare,  Gr.  rl.  They  are  expressed  in  Eng- 
lish for  the  most  part  by  means  of  the  noun  cause.  Only  in 
ccl  imns  III.  and  IV.  have  they  a  peculiar  form,  as  why. 

The  fourteenth  series  consists  of  adverbs  of  intensity  or  degree. 
Comp.  Lat.  tarn,  Gr.  xcfc.  They  are  expressed  in  English  (1.) 
like  the  adverbs  of  manner,  as  so,  how,  as;  (2.)  more  cir- 
cuitously,  as  in  any  degree,  in  no  degree. 

This  table  of  English  correlatives  was  first  published  in  the 
Connecticut  Common  School  Journal,  for  Dec.  1 858. 

For  a  full  table  of  Greek  correlatives,  see  American  Journal 
of  Science,  Vol.  xxxiv.  No.  2.  (1838.)  also  Prof.  A.  Crosby's 
Grammar  of  the  Greek  Language,  Bost.  1846. 

For  a  full  table  of  Latin  correlatives,  see  Religious  Intelli- 
gencer, Oct.  29.  1836. 

Y.     ANALYSIS  OF  ENGLISH  INTERROGATIVES. 
(Comp.  p.  44.) 

We  are  enabled,  in  the  present  state  of  philological  science, 
to  present  a  more  exact  analysis  of  this  class  of  words  than  has 
usually  been  given ;  an  analysis,  which  seriously  affects  the 
statements  concerning  interrogatives  in  our  most  approved 
grammars. 

The  interrogative  words  in  English  are  who*  what,  whose, 
whom,  which,  whether,  where,  whence,  whither,  when,  why.  how. 

These  words  consist  of  two  parts ;  the  initial  part  or  inter- 
rogative element,  which  is  common  to  them  all,  and  the  subse- 
quent part  or  modifying  element,  which  is  peculiar  to  each. 

The  common  interrogative  element  is  hu  or  hw;  which, 
however,  exhibits  itself  under  three  different  aspects. 

(1.)  in  what,  wMch,  whether,  where,  whence,  whither,  when, 
why,  the  interrogative  element  hw,  by  a  caprice  peculiar  to 
English  orthography,  has  its  letters  transposed. 


APPENDIX.  101 

(2.)  In  how,  (Anglo-Sax,  hu,)  there  is  no  transposition,  and 
the  sound  of  u  or  w  is  lost  in  that  of  the  diphthong  ow.  Com- 
pare cow,  (Anglo-Sax,  cu;)  now,  (Anglo-Sax,  nu ;)  brown,  (An- 
glo-Sax, brim, ;)  town  (Anglo-Sax,  tun). 

(3.)  In  who,  (Anglo-Sax,  hwd,)  whose,  whom,  the  transposition 
takes  place,  and  the  diphthong  uo  or  wo  has  the  sound  of  oo  in 
moon.  Compare  two,  (Anglo-Sax,  twd). 

We  now  proceed  to  examine  the  modifying  element  which  is 
peculiar  to  each  of  these  words. 

1.  Who,    (Moeso-Goth.  hivas,   Anglo-Sax,   hwd,)  the  pure: 
pronoun  of  the  masculine  and  feminine  gender,  and  of  both" 
numbers.     The  original  termination  of  the  pure  pronoun  was 
a,  to  which  was  added  s,  the  original  sign  of  the  nominative 
singular  masculine,   or  of  the  personal  subject,  in  the  Indo- 
European  languages  ;  as,  Moeso-Goth.  hwas.     The  termination 
as  was  abridged  to  a  ;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  hwa.     Hence  Eng.  who  ; 
compare  Anglo-Sax,  ban,  Eng.  bone ;    Anglo-Sax,  ham,    Eng, 
home  ;  Anglo-Sax,  twd,  Eng.  two;  in  which  words  the  Anglo- 
Sax,  a  becomes  o  in  English. 

Note. —  Who  is  used  only  substantively. 

2.  What,  (Moeso-Goth.  hwa  for  hwata,  Swed.  and  Dan.  hvad, 
Anglo-Sax,  hwcet,)  the  neuter  gender  of  the  pure  pronoun.     It 
is  composed  of  the  pure  pronoun,  and  d,  t,  or  some  phonological 
equivalent,  the  original  termination  of  the  nominative  and  ac- 
cusative singular  neuter  in  the  Indo-European  languages.    Com- 
pare Lat.  quod,  quid,  id,  istud,  illud,  aliad,  and  Eng.  it,  that ; 
in  which  the  termination  d  or  t  subserves  the  same  purpose. 

Note  1. —  What  is  also  used  as  an  adjective,  and  that  of  all 
genders;  the  neuter  gender  being  considered  as  the  most  ge- 
neric or  comprehensive.  Compare  English  that,  originally  neu- 
ter, but  now  used  as  an  adjective  of  all  genders. 

Note  2. —  What  is  sometimes  used  elliptically,  and  thus  puts 
on  the  appearance  of  an  adverb  or  interjection;  as,  What  if  I 
undertake  this  business  myself?  i.  e.  What  will  be,  if  I  under- 
take this  business  myself?  What  though  etc.  i.  e.  What  will 
be,  though  etc.  What !  could  ye  not  watch  with  me  one 
hour  ?  i.  e.  What  is  this  ?  could  ye  not  watch  with  me  one 
hour  ?  What  ho  ?  i.  e.  What  is  there  ?  ho ! 

3.  Whose,  (Moeso-Goth.  hwis,  Anglo-Sax,  hwces,)  the  geni- 
tive case  of  the  pure  pronoun.     It  may  be  regarded  as  equiva- 
lent to  who's,  and  is  composed  of  the  pure  pronoun  and  the 

9* 


102  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS. 

termination  s,  the  common  sign  of  the  genitive  in  the  Indo- 
European  languages. 

Note. —  Whose  was  originally  of  all  genders ;  but  in  the 
neuter,  it  has  given  place  to  the  compound  form  whereof,  and 
whereof  \s  now  giving  place  to  the  phrase  of  what. 

4.  Whom,  (Slceso-Goth.  hwana,  Swed.  and  Dan.  hvem*  An- 
glo-Sax, hwcene,  hwone,)  the  accusative  masculine  and  feminine 
of  the  pure  prononn.     It  is  composed  of  the  pure  pronoun, 
and  the  termination  m  or  n,  the  common  sign  of  the  accusative 
singular  masculine  and  feminine  in  the  Indo-European  langua- 
ges.    Compare  Eng.  him  and  them,  in  which  the  termination 
m  subserves  the  same  purpose. 

Note. — For  the  accusative  neuter,  ivhat  is  used.  See  What 
above. 

5.  Which,  (Moeso-Goth.  hweleiJcs  or  hwileiks,  Old  Germ. 
huelih,  Germ,  wtlcher,  Iceland,  hvilikr,  Anglo-Sax,  hulic,  hwylc, 
hwilc,  hwelc,)  the  partitive  adjective.     It  is  composed  of  hwe 
or  hwiu,  the  ancient  modal  case  of  the  pure  pronoun,  and  the 
ancient  form  of  Eng.  like.     Compare  Eng.  each,   (Old  Germ. 
eogalihher,  Germ,  jeglicher,  Anglo-Sax,  celc,)  and  such,  (Moeso- 
Goth.  swaltiks,  Old  Germ,  solih,  Anglo-Sax,  swilc,)  in  which 
the  termination  ch  subserves  the  same  purpose. 

Note. —  Which  is  properly  an  adjective  of  quality,  of  what 
kind  or  sort?  but  in  use  is  a  partitive  adjective.  It  is  of  all 
genders. 

6.  Whether,  (Mceso-Goth.  hwathar,  Old  Germ,  huedar,  An- 
glo-Sax, hwcether,)  the  adjective  of  preference,  a  sort  of  com- 
parative degree.     It  is  formed  from  the  pure  pronoun,  by  an- 
nexing thar,  iher,  or  dar,  the  termination  of  the  comparative. 
Compare  Lat.  uter,  neuter,  alter,  ceterus ;    and  Eng.  either, 
neither,  other;  in  which  words  the  termination  ter  or  ther  has 
the  same  force. 

Note  —  Whether  is  nearly  supplanted  in  usage  by  which, 
except  as  an  adverb  in  indirect  inquiry. 

7.  Where,  (Mceso-Goth.  hwar,  Old  Germ,  hwar.  Germ,  wo, 
wor,  war,  Dutch  waar,  Iceland,  and  Swed.  hvar,  Dan.  hvor, 
Anglo-Sax,  hwcer,  hwar,)  an  adverb  of  the  place  in  which.     It 
is  composed  of  the  pure  pronoun,  and  a  termination  common 
to  all  the  Teutonic  dialects. 

Note  —  Where  is  found  in  the  compounds  whereabout,  where- 
at, whereby,  wherefore,  wherein,  whereon,  wherewith,  wherewithal; 
which  primarily  refer  to  place,  but  in  usage  are  extended  to 
denote  other  relations  also. 


APPENDIX.  103 

8.  Whence,   (Old  Germ,   hwanan,  Germ,  wannen,  Iceland. 
hvathan,   Svved.   hvadan,   Dan.    hveden,    Anglo-Sax,    hwonan, 
hwanon,)  an  adverb  of  the  place  from  which.     It  is  composed 
of  the  pure  pronoun,  and  a  termination  in  n  common  to  all 
the  Teutonic  dialects.     The  final  sibilant  sound  is  peculiar  to 
the  English   language,  and  is  perhaps  an  adverbial  genitive 
sign.     Compare  Eng.  hence,  thence,  since,  which  have  a  similar 
termination. 

9.  Whither,  (Mceso-Goth.  hwadre,  Old  Germ,  hwarot,  Old 
Sax.  huarod,  Iceland,  hvert,  Swed.  hvart,  Old  Dan.  hvort,  hvorth, 
Anglo-Sax,  hwider^  hivyder,)  an  adverb  of  the  place  to  which. 
It  is  composed  of  the  pure  pronoun,  and  a  termination  common 
with  some  variation  to  most  of  the  Teutonic  dialects. 

10.  When,  (Mceso-Goth.  hwan,  Old  Germ,  hwanne,  hwenne, 
Old  Sax.  huan,  Germ,  wann,  wenn,  Anglo-Sax,  hwonne,  hwenne, 
hwcenne,)  an  adverb  of  the  time  in  which.,  is  the  ancient  ac- 
cusative singular  masculine  of  the  pure  pronoun.     Compare 
Lat.  quum,  turn,  dam,  num,  and  Eng.  then,  all  of  which  have 
a  similar  termination. 

11.  Why.  (Moeso-Goth.  hwe,  Old  Germ,  hw'm,  Iceland.  Swed. 
and  Dan.  hvi,  Anglo-Sax,  hwi,  hwy,  hwig,)  an  adverb  of  cause, 
is  the  ancient  modal  case  of  the  pure  pronoun,  arid  was  for- 
merly preceded  by  the  preposition /or  ;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  forhwi, 
(corn  p.  Anglo-Sax,  forthi,  Old  Eng.  for  thy,  therefore.) 

12.  How,   (Moeso-Goth.   hwaiwa,  Old    Germ,  hwieo,  hwio, 
Germ,  wie,  Anglo-Sax,  hwu,  M,)   an  adverb  of  manner  and 
intensity.     It  is  composed  of  the  ancient  modal  case,  (Moeso- 
Goth.  hwe^  Old  Germ,  hwiu,)  and  a  suffix,  (Mceso-Goth.  aiwa, 
Old  Germ,  io  or  eo,  Germ,  je,  ever). 

Most  of  these  words  are  used  also  indefinitely  or  relatively, 
but  such  use  does  not  come  within  the  plan  of  this  essay. 

General  Remarks. 

1.  These  words  form  a  distinct  and  well  defined  class.  They 
have  a  common  character.  There  is  one  idea  which  pervades 
them  all,  namely,  that  denoted  by  the  interrogative  element. 

They  do  not  name  or  describe  any  person,  thing,  quality, 
place,  time,  cause  or  manner,  but  merely  point  out  or  hint  at 
it,  by  way  of  interrogation,  which  is  the  nature  of  the  pronoun, 
llence  they  may  all^rank  with  pronouns  and  pronominal  words, 
which  together  constitute  one  part  of  speech. 


104  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

Our  grammars  are  unfortunate  in  not  giving  more  distinctness 
to  this  class  of  words.  They  usually  distribute  them  with  the 
different  parts  of  speecn,  and  thus  destroy  the  importance  which 
they  justly  claim  as  a  class  or  whole. 

2.  The  interrogatives  are  an  original  or  underived  class  of 
words,  and  should  be  made  prominent  as  such. 

The  older  grammarians  gave  to  the  interrogative  pronouns 
their  proper  place  before  the  relative.  J.  Greenwood,  who 
wrote  in  1729,  speaks  of  who  and  whom,  which  he  calls  inter- 
rogative pronouns,  as  being  used  also  to  signify  relation.  But 
our  most  popular  grammarians  now  regard  the  interrogative 
pronouns  as  a  modification  of  the  relative,  and  derive  the  inter- 
rogative use  of  these  words  from  the  relative.  Rev.  A.  Crombie. 
(Treatise  on  the  Etymology  and  Syntax  of  the  English  language, 
London,  1809.  p.  81,)  discusses  this  very  point,  and  comes  to 
this  erroneous  conclusion. 

His  chief  arguments  are  (1.)  The  analogy  existing  between 
the  interrogative  and  relative.  The  relative,  it  is  said,  refers  to  a 
term  or  subject  antecedent  and  known ;  the  interrogative,  to  a 
term  or  subject  subsequent  and  unknown.  But  this  analogy, 
which  may  be  admitted  to  exist,  proves  nothing  as  to  priority  of 
origin.  (2.)  That  the  interrogative  sentence  may  be  resolved  by 
an  ellipsis  into  a  sentence  with  the  relative  ;  thus,  Who  did  it? 
is  equivalent  to,  I  want  to  know  who  did  it.  But  this  logical 
equivalence  does  not  prove  in  the  least,  that  the  phraseology 
without  the  ellipsis  was  ever  in  use  as  an  historical  fact. 

On  the  contrary  in  favor  of  the  priority  of  the  interrogative, 
it  may  be  urged,  (1.)  That  the  interrogative  is  found  in  a  sim- 
ple sentence,  proposed  to  another  to  fill  up,  and  is  instinctive, 
as  it  were,  in  our  nature;  while  the  relative  is  found  only  in  a 
compound  sentence,  and  is  very  difficult  of  conception  and  ex- 
planation, and  seems  to  indicate  a  later  and  more  refined  state 
of  human  language.  (2.)  That  the  interrogative  in  the  indirect 
inquiry,  and  the  indefinite,  make  the  natural  transition  from 
the  interrogative  to  the  relative;  not  so  from  the  relative  to 
the  interrogative.  (3.)  That  the  relative  is,  in  many  languages, 
a  mutilated  form  of  the  interrogative.  Thus,  Ion.  Gr.  xoff, 
who?  off,  who;  Lat.  quis,  who?  qai,  who;  Eng.  who,  with  the 
tone  or  accent,  an  interrogative,  who,  without  the  tone  or  ac- 
cent, a  relative.  Such  mutilation  shows  the  effect  of  time. 

3.  These  words,  being  well  defined  as  to  their  nature,  and 
underived  as  to  their  origin,  have  an  interrogative  element,  as 


APPENDIX. 


105 


shown  above,  common  to  them  all.  They  thus  stan  1  aside 
from  the  usual  laws  of  etymology  and  derivation,  which  re- 
spect nouns  and  verbs  only.  Hence  to  derive  what  from  wight, 
and  to  connect  it  with  Lat.  vivo,  vixi,  victum,  as  Dr.  Webster 
has  done,  or  to  derive  how  and  who  from  Anglo-Sax,  hiwan,  to 
hew,  and  ivhat  from  hewed,  the  participle  of  \ew,  as  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson has  done,  is,  to  say  the  least,  highly  unreasonable. 

This  Analysis  of  English  Interrogatives  was  first  published 
in  the  American  Quarterly  Register,  for  Nov.  1842. 

The  analysis  of  the  personal  pronouns  and  of  the  demonstra- 
tives might  be  exhibited  in  a  similar  manner. 

Z.     ETYMOLOGICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LORD'S  PRAYER  IN 
ENGLISH. 

In  the  English  Pater  nosier,  there  are  several  words  of  Latin 
origin.  These  we  shall  specially  notice.  The  pronominal 
elements  are  of  course  Teutonic. 

Our. — The  possessive  pronoun  derived  from  u,  the  pro- 
nominal element  of  the  first  person  plural ;  see  supra,  p.  2. 
The  u  is  involved  in  the  diphthong  ou.  For  the  termination, 
com  p.  her,  your,  their. 

Father. — This  word,  with  slight  variations,  pervades  the 
different  Indo-European  families ;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  fader,  Moeso- 
Goth.  fadar,  Lat.  pater,  Gr.  nuity,  Sansk.  pitr.  But  whether 
the  first  part  of  this  word  is  onomatopoetic,  and  the  termin- 
ation merely  formative  without  special  significancy,  or  whether 
the  first  part  is  a  proper  root,  and  the  latter  part,  ter,  the  suffix 
for  the  noun  of  the  subject,  it  is  difficult  to  determine. 

Who. — The  interrogative  pronoun  used  for  the  relative.  It 
is  derived  from  the  pronominal  element  wh  ;  see  supra,  p.  3. 
For  a  full  account  of  the  termination,  see  supra,  p.  101. 

Art. — Sec.  pers.  sing,  indie,  from  the  defective  verb  am* 
For  the  termination  t,  comp.  wert,  shalt,  wilt. 

In. — A  Teutonic  preposition,  found  also  in  most  of  the  Indo- 
European  families. 

Heaven. — Anglo-Sax,  heofon,  as  if  the  passive  participle  from 
hebban,  to  heave. 

Be  hallowed. — Third  pers.  sing.  pass,  potential,  used  for  the 
imperative,  from  to  hallow,  Anglo-Sax,  holgian. 

Thy. — A  contraction  of  thine,  the  possessive  pronoun  derived 
from  th,  the  pronominal  element  of  the  second  person.  For 
the  termination  and  contraction,  comp.  my  from  mine* 


106  FORMATION    OF    ENGLISH    WORDS. 

Name. — This  word,  with  slight  variations,  pervades  the  dif- 
ferent Indo-European  families;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  nama,  Moeso- 
Goth.  namOj  Lat.  nomen,  Gr.  ovoua,  Sansk.  naman  ;  from  Eng. 
*/know,  Anglo-Sax.  *J  kna,  Lat.  V '  gno,  G-r.  V'/*'0?  ^"ith  for- 
mative m. 

Thy. — As  before. 

Kingdom. — An  abstract  noun ;  formed  from  the  concrete  by 
means  of  the  suffix  dom,  see  supra,  p.  28.  The  ground-form 
king,  Anglo-Sax,  cyning,  from  Anglo-Sax.  \/ 'cen,  to  beget. 

Come. — Third  pers.  sing,  potential,  used  for  the  imperative, 
from  Eng.  come,  past  came,  part.  come. 

Thy. — As  before. 

Will. — A  stern-noun,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  will,  Moeso-Goth. 
vilja,  from  *J  will,  Anglo.Sax.  \/will,  Mceso-Goth.  *J vilj,  Lat. 
*Jvel,  Gr.  <//W. 

Be  done. — Third  pers.  sing.  pass,  potential,  used  for  the  im- 
perative, from  the  verb  to  do,  Anglo-Sax,  don,  Gr.  \/#£. 

On. — Another  form  of  in,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  an,  Mceso-Goth. 
ana,  Gr.  &*&. 

Earth. — A  stem-noun  from  the  root  ear,  to  plow,  see  su- 
pra, p.  85.  For  the  root,  Eng.  ear,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  man, 
Moeso-Goth.  arjan,  Lat.  aro,  Gr.  (i^ow. 

As. — A  contraction  of  also,  compounded  of  al,  and  so  from 
the  pronominal  element  s.  It  is  used  as  an  adverb  of  manner. 

In. — As  before. 

Heaven. — As  before. 

Give. — Sec.  pers.  sing,  imperative  of  the  verb  to  give,  comp. 
Ano-lo-Sax.  */ gif,  Moeso-Goth.  »J gib. 

Us. — The  objective  case,  (comp.  Aliglo-Sax.  us,  Mceso-Goth. 
uns,)  from  the  pronominal  element  u,  see  supra,  p.  2.  Here 
used  for  the  dative. 

This. — A  pronominal  adjective,  derived  from  the  pronomi- 
nal element  th,  denoting  the  remoter  demonstrative,  but  em- 
ployed here  to  denote  the  nearer  demonstrative ;  see  supra,  p.  3. 

Day. — A  Teutonic  stem-noun,  found  also  in  other  Indo-Euro- 
pean families;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  dceg,  Moeso-Goth.  dags,  Lat.  dies. 

Our. — As  before. 

Daily. — An  adjective  formed  from  the  substantive  day  by 
means  of  the  suffix  ly,  see  supra,  p.  20. 

Bread. — A  stem-noun,  comp.  Anglo-Sax,  bread,  from  an  un- 
certain root. 


APPENDIX.  107 

Forgive. — Sec.  pers.  sing,  imperative  of  the  verb  forgive, 
which  is  formed  from  the  Teutonic  root  give,  by  means  of  the 
prepositional  suffix /or  ;  see  supra,  p.  89. 

Us. — Objective  case  plural  of  the  first  personal  pronoun  ; 
here  used  for  the  dative,  as  before. 

Our. — As  before. 

Debts. — The  plural  objective  of  a  noun  of  the  passive  object, 
from  the  Latin  verb  debeo,  to  owe,  which  is  compounded  of 
de  and  habeo,  to  possess. 

As. — As  before. 

We. — Nomin.  plur.  derived  from  u,  the  pronominal  element 
of  the  first  personal  pronoun. 

Forgive. — First  pers.  plur.  indicative  from  the  verb  to  forgive. 

Our. — As  before. 

Debtors. — Objective  case  plural  of  a  nomen  agentis,  from  the 
Latin  verb  debeo,  which  is  compounded  of  de  and  habeo. 

Lead. — Sec.  pers.  sing,  imper.  of  the  Teutonic  verbal  root 
lead.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax.  Icedan. 

Us. — The  objective  case,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  us,  Mceso-Goth. 
uns,)  derived  from  u,  the  pronominal  element  of  the  first  per- 
son plural ;  see  supra,  p.  2.  Here  used  as  the  objective  case. 

Not. — A  contraction  of  naught,  which  is  composed  of  ne, 
the  element  of  negation,  and  aught ;  see  supra,  p.  3.  Philol. 
Stud.  p.  175. 

Into. — A  preposition  compounded  of  in  and  to  ;  see  Philol. 
Stud.  p.  80. 

Temptation. — An  abstract  noun  from  tempt,  a  verb  of  Latin 
origin.  Comp.  Latin  tempto  or  tento,  a  secondary  or  derivative 
verb  from  Lat.  \/ 'ten,  (in  tendo,)  to  stretch,  =  Gr.  *J  rotv, 
Sansk.  */ tan. 

But. — A  conjunction,  compounded  of  be  or  oy,  and  out.  See 
Philol.  Stud.  p.  161. 

Deliver.-?— Sec.  pers.  sing,  imper.  of  deliver,  a  word  of  Latin 
origin.  Comp.  Lat.  de,  from,  and  libero,  a  derivative  or  second- 
ary verb  from  the  stem-adjective  liber,  free. 

Us. — The  objective  case  of  the  plural  of  the  pronoun  of  the 
first  person.  Here  used  as  the  objective  case. 

From. — A  Teutonic  preposition  ;  see  Philol.  Stud.  p.  76.  A 
more  modern  form  than  of,  see  supra,  p.  36. 

Evil. — A  Teutonic  stem- adjective,  with  formative  el;  see 
supra,  p.  14. 


108  FORMATION    OF   ENGLISH    WORDS. 

For. — A  Teutonic  particle,  found  also  in  other  Indo-Euro- 
pean families.  Here  used  as  a  conjunction. 

Thine. — The  possessive  pronoun,  derived  from  th,  the  pro- 
nominal element  of  the  second  person.  Here  uncontracted. 
Com  p.  thy  above. 

Is. — Third  pers.  sing,  indie,  of  the  defective  verb  is  or  am. 
It  is  a  Teutonic  verb,  but  found  in  all  the  Indo-European 
families. 

The. — The  definite  article,  an  unemphasized  demonstrative 
pronoun,  derived  from  th,  the  pronominal  element  of  the  re- 
moter demonstrative;  see  supra,  p.  3. 

Kingdom. — As  before. 

And. — A  Teutonic  conjunction,  found  also  in  other  Indo- 
European  families. 

The.— As  before. 

Power. — A  word  of  Norman  French  origin ;  comp.  Fr. 
pouvoir^  Norman  French  povare. 

And. — As  before. 

The. — As  before. 

Glory. — A  derivative  noun  of  Latin  origin,  from  uncertain 
root. 

For. — A  Teutonic  preposition,  found  also  in  most  of  the 
Indo-European  families. 

Ever. — A  Teutonic  stem-substantive  with  formative  liquid, 
but  found  in  most  of  the  Indo-European  families.  Comp.  An- 
glo-Sax, act,  awa,  cefer,  Mceso-Goth.  aiv,  Lat.  aevum,  Gr.  al'uv. 

Amen. — A  Hebrew  word  derived  to  us  through  the  Greek  of 
the  New  Testament. 


SPECIMEN 


VOCABULARY   OF   TEUTONIC   ROOTS 


AND    STEM-WORDS 


ENGLISH     LANGUAGE. 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS. 

1.  This  Vocabulary  is  intended  only  for  the  roots  and  stem- 
words  in  the  Teutonic  portion  of  our  language. 

2.  The  Teutonic  portion    of   the  English  language,  in   its 
present  state,  exhibits  a  greater  number  of  simple  roots,  than 
the  other  Teutonic  dialects.     This  is  oVing  to  the  fact  that  our 
language  has  cast  off  to  a  greater  extent  the  terminations  and 
inflections,  which  once  encumbered  the  root.     This  applies  only 
to  the  consonants  of  the  root.     The  radical  vowel  is  generally 
disguised  in  English,  owing  to  the   peculiar  vocalism  of  the 
English  language. 

3.  It  is  obviously  proper,  in  a  vocabulary  of  Teutonic  Eng- 
lish roots,  to  give  first  the  Anglo-Saxon  terms,  as  being  merely 
an   older  form  of  English,  then  the   Moeso-Gothic,  as   being 
merely  an   older  form  of  Anglo-Saxon,  and  then  the  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Sanskrit,  as  exhibiting  a  still  older  form  of  the  lan- 
guage.    The  root  is  found  to  vary  as  to  its  form ;  but,  as  a 
general  rule,  the  farther  we  go  back,  the  nearer  we  come  to 
the  absolute  root. 

4.  In  etymological  investigations  of  the  Teutonic  dialects, 
regard  must  be  had  to  the  ancient  or  strong  conjugation  of 
the  verbs. 

5.  In  strongly  inflected  verbs,  as  all  philologists  now  agree, 
the  past  tense  is  the  root,  and  not  the  present  tense,  as  in  weak- 
ly inflected  verbs. 

6.  In  §  5. 1.  supra,  we  followed  the  common  principle,  that 
the  present  indicative  gives  the  original  form  of  the  root.     But 
in  this  Vocabulary  we  adopt  the  more  scientific  principle  that 
the  root  is  to  be  found  in  the  past  tense. 

7.  There  are  twelve  classes  or  conjugations  o£  strongly  in- 
flected verbs,  in  the  kindred   Teutonic  dialects,  distinguished 
by  the  internal  inflection  or  change  of  vowel  in  the  leading 
parts  of  the  verb.     We  have  been  accustomed  to  follow  the 
classification  of  Fr.  Schmitthenner.      See  Amer.  Journ.  Educ. 
Vol.  III.  p.  101  ff.  for  a  full  exhibition  of  Schmitthenner's  sys- 
tem.    The  system  usually  followed  is  that  of  Grimm. 


1 2 2  VOCABULARY. 

(1.)  Schmitthenner's  'Conjugation  I.  includes  verbs   which 
have,  or  rather  originally  had,  i  or  its  modification  e  before  a 
single  consonant  in  the  present  tense,  a  in  the  past  tense,  and 
u  or  its  modification  o  in  the  past  participle ;  as, 
Goth.  pres.  brika,  past  Irak,  part,  brukans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  brece,  past  brcec,  part,  brocen. 

Germ.          pres.  breche,  past  brack,          part,  gebrochen. 

Eng.  pres.  break,  past  brake,  obs.  part,  broken. 

Root  brak. 

The  inflection  here  consists  in  the  play  of  the  vowels  i,  a, 
and  u.  The  vowel  a,  as  the  leading  or  predominant  vowel,  is 
considered  as  the  vowel  of  the  root. 

(2.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  II.  includes   verbs  which 
have,  or  rather  originally  had,  i  or  its  modification  e  before 
two  consonants  in  the  present  tense,  a  in  the  past  tense,  and  u 
or  its  modification  o  in  the  past  participle ;  as, 
Goth.  pres.  siggwa,  past  saggw,        part,  suggwans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  singe,  past  sang,  part,  sungen. 

Germ.  pres.  singe,  past  sang,  part,  gesungen. 

Eng.  pres.  sing,  past  sang,  part.  sung. 

Root  sang. 

The  inflection  here  consists  in  the  play  of  the  vowels  i,  a, 
and  u.  The  vowel  a,  as  the  leading  or  predominant  vowel,  is 
considered  as  the  vowel  of  the  root. 

(3.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  III.  includes  verbs  which 
have,  or  rather  originally  had,  i  or  its  modification  e  in  the 
present  tense,  a  in  the  past  tense,  and  i  or  its  modification  e  in 
the  past  participle  ;  as, 

Goth.  pres.  giba,  past  gab,  part,  gibans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  gife,  past  gaf,  part,  gifen. 

Germ.  pres.  gebe,  past  gab,  part,  gegeben. 

Eng.  pres.  give,  past  gave,  part,  given. 

Root  gaf. 

The  inflection  here  consists  in  the  play  of  the  vowels  i,  a, 
and  i.  The  vowel  a,  as  the  leading  or  predominant  vowel,  is 
considered  as  the  vowel  of  the  root. 

(4.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  IV.  includes  verbs  which 
have,  or  rather  originally  had,  a  in  the  present  tense,  h  (=.aa) 
or  its  modification  o  in  the  past  tense,  and  a  in  the  past  parti- 
ciple; as, 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS,  113 

Goth.  pres.  slaha,  past  sloh,  part,  slahans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  slea,  past  sloh,  part,  slegen. 

Germ.  pres.  schlage,  past  schlug,        part,  geschlagen. 

Eng.  pres.  slay,  past  s£«0,  part  slain. 

Root  \Alali. 

The  radical  vowel  here  is  evidently  a ;  wfiich  in  the  past 
tense  is  strengthened  by  guna,  i.  e.  by  prefixing  another  a. 

(5.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  V.  includes  verbs  which 
have,  or  rather  originally  had,  ei  in  the  present  tense,  and 
ie  or  i  in  the  past  tense  and  in  the  participle ;  as, 
Goth.  pres.  dreiba,  past  draib,         part,  dribans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  drife,  past  drof,  part,  drifen. 

Germ.  pres.  treibe,  past  trieb,  part,  getrieben. 

Eng.  pres.  drive,  past  drove.         part,  driven. 

Boot  drif. 

The  radical  vowel  here  is  evidently  i;  which  in  the  present 
and  past  tenses  is  strengthened  by  guna,  i.  e.  by  prefixing  a  or  e. 

(6.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  VI.  includes  verbs  which 
have,  or  rather  originally  had,  iu  in  the  present  tense,  au  in 
the  past  tense,  and  it  in  the  past  participle ;  as, 
Goth.  pres.  biuga,  past  bang,          part,  bugans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  buge,  past  beak,  part,  bogen. 

Germ.  pres.  biege,  past  bog,  part,  gebogen. 

Eng.  pres,  bow,  past  (bowed,)     part,  (bowed.) 

Root  bug. 

The  radical  vowel  here  is  evidently  u  ;  which  in  the  present 
and  past  tenses  is  strengthened  by  guna,  i.  e.  by  prefixing  a  or  i. 

(7.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  VII.  includes  verbs  which 
have,   or  rather  originally  had,  a   reduplication   in  the   past 
tense,  and  whose  root  terminates  with  a  vowel ;  as, 
Goth.  pres.  saia,          past  saiso,  part,  saians. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  sawe,         past  seow,  part,  sawen. 

Eng.  pres.  sow,  past  (sowed,)      part,  sown  or  sowed. 

Root  §aw. 

(8.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  VIII.  includes  verbs  which 
have,  or  rather  originally  had,  a  reduplication  in  the  past  tense, 
and  whose  root  terminates  in  a  before  two  consonants;  as, 
Goth.  pres.  halda,        past  haihald,         part,  kaldans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  healde,       past  heold,  part  healdent 

10* 


114  VOCABULARY. 

Germ.  pres.  haltp,         past  hielt,  part,  gehalten. 

Eng.  pres.  hold,          past  held,  part,  holden. 

Root  liald. 

(9.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  IX.  exhibits  in  Gothic  a 
reduplication  in  the  past  tense,  and  in  the  German  a  long  d 
before  a  simple  consonant  in  the  present ;  as, 

Goth.  pres.  slepa,         past  saislep,          part,  slepans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  slope,         past  step,  part,  dapen. 

Germ.  pres.  schlafe,      past  schlief,  part,  geschlafen. 

Eng.  pres.  steep,         past  (slept,)          part,  (slept.) 

Root  slap. 

Conjugations  VII.  VIII.  and  IX.  as  a  whole,  correspond  to 
conjugations  I.  II.  and  III.  as  a  whole.  They  all  have  the  radi- 
cal vowel  a.  But  they  are  differently  subdivided,  and  conju- 
gations VII.  VIII.  and  IX.  have  in  Gothic  a  reduplication, 
which  conjugations -I.  II.  and  III.  have  not. 

(10.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  X.  exhibits  in  Gothic 
a  reduplication  in  the  past  lense,  and  in  German  u  —  aa,  (a 
strengthened  by  guna,)  in  the  present  and  participle;  as, 

Goth.  pres.  greta,         past  gaigrot,  part.  Cretans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  grete,          past  (grette!)          part,  gretten. 
Eng.  pres.  greet,          past  (greeted,)        part,  (greeted.) 

Root  grat. 

This  conjugation  differs  from  the  IV.  in  having  the  Gothic 
reduplication. 

(11.)  Schmitthenner's  Conjugation  XL  includes  words  which 
have,  or  rather  originally  had,  «*',  {i  strengthened  by  guna,)  in 
all  the  forms,  and  a  reduplication  also  in  the  past  tense;  as, 
Goth.  pres.  haita,  past  kai-hait,       part,  haitans, 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  hate,  past  het,  part,  ha  ten. 

Eng.  pres.  behight,  obs.    past  behot,  obs,   part,  hoten,  obs. 

Root  Int. 

This  conjugation  differs  from  the  V.  in  having  the  Gothic 
reduplication. 

(12.)  Schmit then ner's  Conjugation  XII.  includes  verbs 
which  have,  or  rather  originally  had,  au,  (a  strengthened  by 
guna,),  in  all  the  forms,  and.  a  reduplication  also  in  the  past 
tense ;  as, 


PRELIMINARY   REMARKS.  115 

Goth.  pres.  auka,  past  aiauJc,         part,  aukans. 

Anglo-Sax,  pres.  ece,  past  (ecte,)         part,  (geeced.) 

Eng.  pres.  e&£,  past  (eked,)        part,  (eked.) 

Root  uk. 

This  conjugation  differs  from  the  VI.  in  having  the  Gothic 
reduplication. 

8.  The  student,  in  order  to  use  the  Vocabulary  advantageous- 
ly, should  be  familiar  with  Grimm's  law  of  consonant  changes, 
which  has  now  become  so  important  and  interesting.  This 
law  we  have  given  in  part  supra,  p.  13..  It  consists  in  the 
rotation  of  the  mute  consonants  of  the  several  organs,  in  the 
same  direction,  as  exhibited  by  the  Saxon  or  Gothic  and  by 
the  Germanic  branch  of  the  Teutonic  family,  in  their  relation 
to  the  other  Indo-European  families.. 

The  mutes  are  divided  into  the  tenues,  as  p,  £,  k  ;  the  aspi- 
rates, as,  ph,  thj  kh  ;  and  the  mediae,  as  6,  </,  g. 

According  to  Grimm's  law,  words  having  a  tennis  in  the  older 
languages,  as  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Latin,-  exchange  it  for  the 
corresponding  aspirate  in  the  Gothic  or  Saxon  branch,,  and  for 
the  corresponding  media  in  the  German.  Words  having  an. 
aspirate  in  the  original  languages,  exchange  it  for  a  media  in 
the  Gothic,  and  a  tenuis  in  the  German  branch.  And  words 
having  a  media  in  the  original  languages,  exchange  it  for  a 
tenuis  in  the  Gothic,  and  an  aspirate  in  the  German  branch. 

This  principle  is  merely  euphonic.  The  rotatory  principle 
has  never  yet  been  fully  explained. 

This  general  law  is  somewhat  modified  by  the  special  char- 
acter of  particular  languages,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following 
table: 

(1.)  The  Latin  c  (=•&)  becomes  h  (for  kh)  in  English  and 
German. 

1.  Lat.  calamus;  Eng.  Aalm ;  Germ,  Aalm. 

2.  Lat.  canis;  Eng.  hound ;  Germ.  Aund. 

3.  Lat.  cannabis ;  Eng.  Aernp ;  Germ.  Aanf. 

4.  Lat.  cano ;  Eng..  Aen  ;  Germ.  Aahn. 

5.  Lat.  caput;  Eng.  7iead,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  heafod ;)  Germ.. 
Aaupt. 

6.  Lat.  celo;  Old  Eng.  Aele;  Germ.  Aehlen. 

7.  Lat.  Centura  ;  Eng.  Aundred  ;  Germ.  Aundert. 

8.  Lat.  claudus;  Eng.  Aalt;  Germ.  Aalz,  (in  hufehalz.) 
Q.Latcopia;  Eug.  Aeap;  Germ.  Aaufe.     . 


116  VOCABULARY. 

10.  Lat.  cor,  (genit.  cordis  ;)  Eng.  Aeart;  Germ.  Aerz. 

11.  Lat.  cornu ;  Eng.  Aorn;  Germ.  Aorn. 

12.  Lat.  crinis ;  Eng.  Aair;  Germ.  Aaar. 

13.  Lat.  curro;  Eng.  Aurry. 

14.  Gr.  xe^ros;  Eng.  Aard ;  Germ.  Aart. 

(2.)  The  Latin  h  (for  M)  becomes  #  in  English  and  German. 

1.  Lat.  Aaedus;  Eng.  <?oat;  Germ.  ^eiss. 

2.  Lat.  Aomo ;  Eng.  #room,  (in  bridegroom;)  Germ.  #am,  (in 
brautigam.) 

3.  Lat.  Aortus ;  Eng.  garden  ;  Germ,  ^arten. 

4.  Lat.  Aostis  ;  Eng.  #uest ;  Germ.  #ast. 

5.  Gr.  %if[v ;  Eng.  yoose ;  Germ.  <?ans. 

6.  Gr.  x°^A  >  Eng.  gall ;  Germ.  ^alle. 

(3.)  The  Latin  g  becomes  k  or  c  in  English  and  German. 

1.  Lat.  ^elidus ;  Eng.  cold ;  Germ.  &alt. 

2.  Lat.  #ena ;  Eng.  cAin,  (comp.  Anglo-Sax,  cyw,)  Germ.  ^inn. 

3.  Lat.  #enu  ;  Eng.  Arnee ;  Germ.  A-nie. 

4.  Lat.  ^enus ;  Eng.  Arind  ;  Old  High  Germ.  &unni. 

5.  Lat.  </riosco ;  Eng.  Aren  and  &now ;  Germ.  Arennen. 

6.  Lat.  #ranum  ;  Eng.  corn  and  kernel ;  Germ,  corn  and  £ern. 

7.  Gr.  yvvrl ;  Eng.  ^ueen. 

8.  Sansc.  #aus;  Eng.  cow;  Germ.  Aruh. 

(4.)  The  Latin  t  becomes  th  in  English,  and  d  in  German. 

1.  Lat.  tengo;  Eng.  think]  Germ.  Menken. 

2.  Lat.  tego;  Eng.  th&tch  and  deck;  Germ,  c/ecken. 

3.  Lat.  tenuis :  Eng.  thm ;  Germ.  c?iinn. 

4.  Lat.  tertius;  Eng.  ^Aird  ;  Germ,  fritter. 

5.  Lat.  ^onitru ;  Eng.  Sunder;  Germ.  Conner. 

6.  Lat.  ^orreo ;  Eng.  thirst ;  Germ,  durst. 

7.  Lat.  fres ;  Eng.  Z/iree ;  Germ.  drei. 

8.  Lat.  Jrudo ;  Eng.  ZArust. 

9.  Lat.  tu ;  Eng.  thou ;  Germ.  d\\. 

10.  Lat.  2nd,  (in  istud ;)  Eng.  /Aat;  Germ.  c?as. 

(5.)  The  Latin  or  Greek  th  becomes  d  in  English,  and  t  in 
German. 

1.  Eng.  duck;  Germ,  fauchen  and  ducken. 

2.  Gr.  Ofy;  Eng.  deer;  Germ.  *Aier,  (comp.  Old  High  Germ, 
dor). 

3.  Gr.  Ovyfarft;  Eng.  daughter;  Germ,  tochter. 

4.  Gr.  0t;occ;  Eng.  door;  Germ.  fAiir,  (comp.  Old  High  Germ. 
Jura.) 

(6.)  The  Latin  d  becomes  t  in  English,  and  z  in  German. 


PRELIMINARY   REMARKS.  117 

1.  Lat.  Secern ;  Eng.  fen;  Germ.  zehn. 

2.  Lat.  c?ens ;  Eng.  tooth ;  Germ.  2ahn. 
S.  Lat.  c?ico ;  Eng.  teach  ;  Germ,  zeigen. 

4.  Old  Lat.  lingua;  Eng.  tongue;  Germ,  zunge. 

5.  Lat.  cfomo;  Eng.  teme;  Germ.  0ahmen. 

6.  Lat.  duco ;  Eng.  tug ;  Germ,  ziehen. 

7.  Lat.  duo ;  Eng.  two ;  Germ.  zwei.. 

8.  Gr.  ddxQv ;  Eng.  tear ;  Germ,  zahre. 

(7.)  The  Latin  p  becomes /in  English,  and /or  v  in  German. 

1.  Lat.  jt>ater;  Eng.  /ather;  Germ,  vater. 

2.  Lat.  pauci ;  Eng.  /ew ;  Old  High  Germ.  /ahe. 

3.  Lat.  pellis ;  Eng.  /ell ;  Germ.  /ell. 

4.  Lat.  pes,  (genit.  pedis;)  Eng.  /oot ;  Germ.  /uss. 

5.  Lat.  ^?iscis ;   Eng.  /ish ;  Germ.  /isch. 

6.  Lat.  />lenus ;  Eng.  full ;  Germ.  voll. 

7.  Lat.  ^ro  and  ^>rae ;  Eng. /ore  and /or ;  Germ./iir  and  vor. 

8.  Lat.  j»ulex;  Eng. /lea;  Germ./loh. 

9.  Gr.  ne(Qw;  Eng. /are;  Germ. /ah r en. 

10.  Gr.  ntvTe ;  Eng. /ive ;  Germ. /iinf. 

11.  Gr.  nvg;  Eng. /ire ;  Germ. /euer. 

(8.)  The  Latin  /  becomes  b  in  English  and  German, 

1.  Lat. /agus;  Eng.  Seech;  Germ.  6uche. 

2.  Lat.  /ero ;  Eng.  6ear ;  Germ,  ge^aren. 

3.  Lat. /lo;  Eng.  61ow;  Germ,  ilahen. 

4.  Lat. /los;  Eng.  &loorn  ;  Germ,  ilume. 

5.  Lat/olium;  Eng.  frlade;  Germ.  61att. 

6.  Lat. /oro;  Eng.  6ore;  Germ,  fohren. 

7.  Lat. /rango;  Eng.  freak;  Germ,  frechen. 

8.  Lat.  /rater ;  Eng.  fr other ;  Germ.  5ruder. 

9.  Lat.  /ruor,  (whence  fruges ;)  Eng.  5rook;  Germ.  6rauchen. 

10.  Lat. /ulgeo  and/lagro;  Eng.  61ink;  Germ.  Slicken. 

11.  Lat.  /uo;  Eng.  6e;  Germ.  6in. 

12.  Gr.  dqD^i;^  /  Eng.  6row  ;   Germ,  fraue. 

(9.)  The  Latin  b  becomes  p  in  English,  and  /  in  German. 

1.  Lat.  canna&is;  Eng,  heinp;  Germ.  han/. 

All  these  examples,  excepting  the  very  last  one,  have  respect 
to  the  initial  sound  of  the  word,  where  these  principles  exert 
their  power  freely ;  but  in  the  middle  or  end  of  a  word,  these 
principles  are  often  affected  by  euphonic  laws,  arising  from  the 
accumulation  of  consonants. 

Sometimes  two  of  these  changes  are  illustrated  in  the  same 
word ;  as, 


118  VOCABULARY. 

1.  Lat.  rlaudus;  Eng.  halt.     See  Nos.  (1.)  and  (6.) 

2.  Lat.  cor,  (genit.  corgis ;)  Eng.  heart.   See  Nos.  (1.)  and  (6.) 

3.  Lat.  caput;  Anglo-Sax.  heafod.     See  Nos.  (1.)  and  (7.) 

4.  Lat.  canna&is  ;  Eng.  hemp.     See  Nos.  (1.)  and  (9.) 

5.  Lat.  ^aedus ;  Eng.  c/oat.     See  Nos.  (2.)  and  (6.) 

6.  Lat.  Zan^o  ;  Eng.  think.     See  Nos.  (4.)  and  (3.) 

7.  Eng.  third;  Germ.  dritte.     See  Nos.  (4.)  and  (5.) 

8.  Lat.  tmdo]  Eng.  thrust.     See  Nos.  (4.)  and  (6.) 

9.  Lat.  isfud;  Eng.  that;  Germ.  das.    See  Nos.  (4.)  and  (6.) 

10.  Eng.  dee/?;  Germ.  tief.     See  Nos.  (5.)  and  (9.) 

11.  Lat.   dens,   (genit.  dentis',)   Eng.  toQth.     See  Nos.  (6.) 
and  (4.) 

12.  Eng.  tide;  Germ.  ze\t.     See  Nos.  (6.)  and  (5.) 

13.  Lat.  pater;  Eng.  father.     See  Nos.  (7.)  and  (4.) 

14.  Lat.  pes,  (genit.  pedis ;)  Eng.  foot.    See  Nos.  (7.)  and  (6.) 

15.  Lat.  joiscis;  Eng./isA.     See  Nos.  (7.)  and  (1.) 

16.  Lat.  /ran^o;  Eng.  brea.k.     See  Nos.  (8.)  and  (3.) 

17.  Lat.  /ruor,  (whence  /ru^es;)  Eng.  brook.     See  Nos.  (8.) 
and  (3.) 

18.  Lat.  /ul<?eo;  Eng.  blink.     See  Nos.  (8.)  and  (3.) 

19.  Lat,  /rater;  Eng.  brother.     See  Nos.  (8.)  and  (4.) 

9.  In  the  development  of  the  Indo-European  languages, 
there  has  been  a  gradual  transition  from  a  to  e  and  from  e  to 
t,  and  again  from  a  to  o  and  from  o  to  u.  This  has  been  called 
precession,  because  the  formation  of  the  vowel  sound  advances 
forward  in  the  mouth,  in  the  one  case  in  the  way  of  the  tongue, 
and  in  the  other  in  the  way  of  the  lips. 

(1.)  Examples  of  the  first  kind  of  precession. 

Sansk.  aham,  Gr.  £yc6,  Lat.  ego,  Goth,  ik,  Old  Eng.  ic. 

Sansk.  asti,  Gr.  eon,  Lat.  est,  Goth,  ist,  Eng.  is. 

Sansk.  mahat,  Gr.  ^y«ff,  Lat.  magnus,  Goth,  mikils,  Eng. 
mickle. 

Sansk.  agnis,  Lat.  ignis. 

Sansk.  antas,  Gr.  Iviog,  Lat.  intus. 

Sansk.  saptan,  Gr.  emti,  Lat.  septem,  Goth,  sibun,  Eng.  seven. 

Sansk.  madhu,  Gr.  p£0v,  Lat.  temetum,  Germ,  meth,  Eng.  mead. 

This  is  also  called  attenuation. 

(2.)  Examples  of  the  second  kind  of  precession. 

Sansk.  ga,  Mceso-Goth.  gaggan,  Anglo-Sax,  gan,  Eng.  go. 

Sansk.  bhratri,  Gr.  vg&Tqg,  Lat.  frater,  Anglo- Sax.  brodher, 
Eng.  brother. 

Sansk.  pad,  Gr.  novg  (genit.  nodog,)  Anglo-Sax,  fot,  Eng.  foot. 


PRELIMINARY   REMARKS.  119 

Sansk.  apa,  Gr.  &nb,  Lat.  ab,  Moeso-Gotli.  af,  Anglo-Sax,  af, 
ng.  <>/,  off. 

Sansk.  kanksh,  Moeso-Goth.  huggrjan,  Anglo-Sax,  hunger, 
Eng.  hunger. 

(3.)  Examples  of  both  kinds  of  precession  in  the  same  word. 

Sansk.  saptamas,  Gr.  Spdopos,  Lat.  septimus. 

Sansk.  agni,  fire;  Lat.  ignis,  id.  Moeso-Goth.  auhns,  an 
oven,  Anglo-Sax,  ofen,  Eng.  ovew. 

This  rule  is  to  be  considered  as  showing  a  general  proclivity 
of  language  to  move  in  this  direction. 

10.  The  reader  should  bear  in  mind,  that  an  is  the  infinitive 
termination  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  Moeso-Gothic ;  that  s  is  the 
nominative  termination  in  Moeso-Gothic  nouns;   and  that  a 
vowel,  whether  final,  or  before  a  final  s,  in  some  Teutonic  words, 
is  merely  formative,  preparing  the  way  for  the  declension. 

11.  It  sometimes  happens  that  an  English  dissyllable  has 
been  evolved  from  an  original  monosyllable ;  as,  swallow  from 
Anglo-Sax,  ^swelg ;  wallow  from  Lat.  \fvolv;  follow  from 
Germ.  ^folg. 

12.  It  sometimes  happens  that  an  English  monosyllable  has 
been  contracted  or  abbreviated  from  an  original  dissyllable ;  as, 
ear  (of  corn)  from  Anglo-Sax,  eahher  ;  ere  (sooner)  from  Germ. 
eher  ;  frail  from  Lat.  fragilis. 

13.  The  letter  g  in  the  Teutonic  dialects  often  vocalizes,  and 
in  English  is  sometimes  entirely  lost;  as,  enough,  Anglo- Sax. 
genog  ;  hail,  Anglo-Sax,  hagel;  to  dry,  Anglo-Sax,  drigan. 

14.  The  final  consonant  in  English  roots  is  often  peculiar  and 
anomalous.     In  that  case  we  restore  the  original  or  predomi- 
nant letter ;  as,  gaf  for  gav,  (comp.  gift;)frus  forfruz,  (eomp. 
frost). 

15.  Words,  commencing  with  hi,  hn  or  hr  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
often  omit  the  initial  h  in  English.     In  that  case  we  restore  the 
original  h  ;  as  \/iilacl,  \/iiliip,  x/*1™11** 

16.  English  verbs  sometimes  have  an  epenthetic  n.     We 
omit  such  n  in  the  root ;  as,  \Ahak . 

17.  We  have  printed  the  roots  in  the  full-faced  character, 
but  have  contented  ourselves  to  print  the  stem-words,  and  the 
corresponding  words  in  the  kindred  dialects,  merely  in  Italics. 

18.  This  attempt  at  a  Vocabulary  of  English  Roots  is  to  be 
regarded  merely  as  an  experiment.     The  problem  is,  how  to 
elicit  the  true  form  of  the  root,  and  how  to  present  it  to  the 
eye  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  author  of  this  Vocabulary  confines  himself  to  the  Teu- 


120  VOCABtJLARt. 

tonic  portion  of  our  language ;  because  the  other  portions,  as 
the  Latin  and  the  Greek,  have  been  labored  abundantly. 

The  author  of  this  Vocabulary  confines  himself  to  the  roots 
and  stem-words,  in  order  that  he  may  enter  directly  into  the 
heart  of  the  language,  and  thus  deduce  its  essential  principles. 
The  longer  forms  of  the  language  lie  more  remote. 

The  roots  in  English  have  been  subjected  to  great  changes. 
The  changes  in  the  consonants  may  be  reduced  to  a  system; 
but  the  changes  in  the  vowels  have  been  only  partially  ex- 
plained. 

The  prosecution  of  such  a  work  is  attended  with  great  em- 
barrassment. A  decision  must  often  be  made,  where  the  data 
are  insufficient,  or  where  the  facts  seem  to  contradict  each  other. 

19.  The  different  classes  of  words  which  fall  into  this  Vocab- 
ulary, such  as  it  is,  need  to  be  differently  treated. 

We  have  given  most  attention  to  the  strongly  inflected  verbs, 
which  form  as  it  were  the  basis  of  the  Teutonic  dialects.  The 
roots  given  are  derived  from  a  combined  consideration  of  the 
English,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  Mceso-Gothic  dialects,  and  belong  to 
these  dialects  as  a  whole.  In  the  order  of  these  dialects,  we 
pursue  the  principle  laid  down  on  p.  111.  Prelim.  Rem.  3. 

In  stem-nouns,  whose  verbal  root  is  not  ascertained  with  cer- 
tainty, we  have  only  to  proceed  historically,  going  back  step  by 
step  from  one  form  of  the  word  to  another. 

Numerals  and  quantitatives,  which  make  a  part  of  speech 
by  themselves,  are  treated  like  the  stem-nouns. 

Prepositions  are  also  treated  like  the  stem-nouns,  although 
their  etymology  is  still  a  matter  of  uncertainty. 

Derivatives  from  pronominal  elements  do  not  properly  belong 
to  this  Vocabulary,  yet  a  few  will  be  found  inserted. 

20.  In  reference  to  Sanskrit  analogues,  in  the  present  state 
of  philological  knowledge,  it  might  be  expedient  to  insert  them 
with  the  initial  of  the  person's  name  on  whose  authority  the 
comparison  or  coincidence  rests. 

In  reference  to  Old  High  German  analogues,  a  similar  course 
might  be  pursued. 

Hebrew,  Celtic,  and  Finnish  analogues  should  be  omitted,  till 
the  nature  of  the  related  words  in  those  languages  is  better  un- 
derstood. 

21.  We  are  happy  to  find  that  Pliny  E.  Chase  has  just  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  Sanscrit  and  English  Analogues.     His 
work  deserves  attention,  and  should  be  an  appurtenance  of  all 
our  Higher  School  rooms,  as  a  book  of  reference. 


121 


TEUTONIC   ROOTS  AND   STEM-WORDS. 

Acre,  a  stem-substantive  with  merely  formative  liquid,  (see 
supra,  p.  14.)  Anglo-  Sax.  cecer,  Moeso-Goth.  akrs,  Lat.  ager,  Gr. 


Note.  —  The  agreement  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Teutonic,  in 
respect  to  the  formative  liquid  r,  is  worthy  of  notice. 

\/Ag,  (to  possess,)  uncertain  strong  conj.,  whence  Eng.  owe, 
past  owed,  pass,  partic.  owing  or  owed  ;  Anglo-Sax,  agan,  aht, 
agen;  Moeso-Goth.  aigan,  aihta,  aigans.  Com  p.  Gr.  £#w.  Hence 
ought,  a  preteritive  and  auxiliary  verb,  also  own. 

Note  1.  —  The  vocalization  of  g,  in  the  transition  from  Anglo- 
Saxon  to  English,  (see  Prelim.  Rem.  13.)  seems  to  have  disturbed 
the  English  orthography. 

Note  2.  —  The  Gr.  e'/w  is  said  to  stand  for  e/w,  (comp.  fut.  t'£w). 
It  is  remarkable  that  in  Old  Friesic  the  form  haga  is  used  as 
well  as  aga. 

All,  a  quantitative,  Anglo-Sax,  call,  Moeso-Goth.  alls.  Hence 
also,  almighty. 

Note.  —  The  Anglo  Saxon  often  writes  ea  for  a,  when  followed 
by  h,  I,  or  r.  But  the  English  seems  to  restore  the  original 
vowel.  • 

And,  a  primary  conjunction,  Anglo-Sax,  and,  Old  Fries.  andt 
end. 

Arm,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  earm,  (see  note  on  All,)  Moeso-Goth. 
arms,  Lat.  armus,  the  shoulder,  Gr.  &g^$,  id.  Hence  armlet. 

Arrow,  a  stem-substantive,  originally  of  one  syllable,  (see 
supra,  p.  5,  6.)  Anglo-Sax,  arewa,  Moeso-Goth.  arwazna. 

At,  prep,  (kindred  with  to,)  Anglo-Sax,  cet,  Mceso-Goth.  at, 
Lat.  ad. 

Note.  —  An  original  a  before  most  of  the  mutes,  passes  in 
Anglo  Saxon  into  ce  ;  but  the  original  a  often  returns  in  Eng- 
lish. 

\/At,  strong  conj.  III.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  eat,  past  ate  or 
eat,  pass,  partic.  eaten  or  eat;  Anglo-Sax,  etan,  cet,  eten  ;  Mceso- 
Goth.  itan,  at,  itans.  Comp.  Lat.  */ed,  Gr.  \fid. 

Note.  —  This  root  illustrates  Grimm's  law  of  mute  consonant 
changes  ;  as,  Lat.  edo,  Eng.  cat,  Germ,  essen. 
11 


122  VOCABULARY. 

Awe,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  oga,  Moeso-Goth.  agis,  fear,  from  Moeso- 
Goth.  \/a§f?  to  fear.  Hence  to  aive,  awful. 

Note. — As  no  one  letter  here  exhibits,  its  proper  sound,  Dr. 
Duponceau  selected  this  word  to  illustrate  the  nature  of  a  lexi- 
cal sign  in  Chinese.  But  the  orthography  of  Eng.  awe  is  not 
so  entirely  arbitrary,  as  Dr.  Duponceau  appears  to  think.  The 
word  was  originally  of  two  syllables,  a-we,  (comp.  Dan.  a-ve). 
In  passing  into  a  monosyllable,  the  w  lost  its  consonantal  pow- 
er, and  in  the  character  of  a  vowel  helped  to  form  the  diph- 
thong aw  or  au.  This  diphthong,  which  properly  should  be 
pronounced  like  on  in  found,  has,  by  a  very  general  law  of  the 
English  language,  acquired  the  kindred  sound  of  a  in  au.  The 
mute  e  is  retained  to  show  that  the  vowel  a  is  long.  The  irreg- 
ularity of  the  pronunciation  in  English  is  no  proof  that  the 
word,  or  combination  of  letters,  awe,  is  ideographic  in  our 
language. 

Axe,  n.  Anglo-Sax  cex,  (see  note  on  At,)  Moeso-Goth.  agizi, 
Lat.  ascia,  Gr.  a*ii>y. 

\/Bad,  (to  ask,)  strong  conj.  III.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  bid, 
past  bade  or  bid,  pass,  partic.  bidden  or  bid ;  Anglo-Sax,  biddan, 
bced,  beden;  Mceso-Goth.  bidan,  bad,  bidans. 

Note. — The  Mceso-Gothic  past  tense  gives  the  radical  vowel. 

/V/Bak,  strong,  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  bake,  past 
baked,  pass,  partic.  baken  or  baked;  Anglo- Sax.  bacan,  boc,  bacen. 
Comp.  Lat.  \/coc,  to  cook ;  Gr.  \Snen,  id.  Hence  batch,  bakery. 

Bale,  n.  (obsolete,)  evil,  Anglo-Sax,  balew,  Mceso-Goth.  balvs. 
Hence  baleful. 

/V/Bancl,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  bind,  past 
bound,  pass,  partic.  bound  ;  Anglo-Sax,  bindan,  band,  bunden  ; 
Mceso-Goth.  bindan,  band,  butidans.  Hence  band,  n.  bond,  n. 
bundle,  bandage,  bondage. 

Bane,  n.  Angle-Sax,  bana,  Mceso-Goth.  banja.    Hence  baneful. 

\/JBar?  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  bear,  past  bore, 
pass,  partic.  borne  and  born  ;  Anglo-Sax,  beran,  bcvr,  boren  ; 
Mceso-Goth.  bairan,  bar,  baurans.  Comp.  Lat.  \/fer,  Gr.  \Sysg. 
Hence  bier,  berth,  birth,  burthen. 

/y/JBarst,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  burst,  past 
burst,  pass,  partic.  burst  ;  Anglo-Sax,  berstan,  bcerst,  borsten. 

Note. — We  infer  the  root  barst  from  the  Anglo-Sax,  past 
tense  bcerst.  Comp,  \/At« 

Beam,  n.  Anglo  Sax.  beam,  a  tree,  beam  ;  Moeso-Goth.  bagms, 
a  tree. 


TEUTONIC    ROOTS  AND    STEM-WORDS.  123 

Bear,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  bera,  Moeso-Goth.  biari,  a  wild  beast, 
Lat. /era,  id.  Gr.  qorjo,  id. 

Bed,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  bed,  Moeso-Goth.  badi.     Hence  bedstead. 

Beech,  n.  Anglo- Sax.  bece,  boc,  Lat.  fagus,  Gr.  g^/og. 

Note. — This  stem-substantive  illustrates  Grimm's  law  of  mute 
consonant  changes  ;  as,  Lat.  fagus,  Eng.  beech,  Old  High  Germ. 
puohha. 

Belly,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  bcelg,  a  bag,  belly,  Moeso-Goth.  balgs,  a 
bag. 

\ABid,  (to  remain,)  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng. 
bide,  past  bode,  pass,  parti c.  bode;  Anglo-Sax,  bidan,  bad,  biden; 
Moeso-Goth.  beidan,  baid,  bidans.  Hence  abide. 

/V/Bit,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  bite,  past  bit,  pass, 
partic.  bitten  or  bit ;  Anglo  Sax.  bitan,  bat,  biten  ;  Moeso-Goth. 
beitan,  bait,  bitans.  Hence  bit,  n.  bite,  n. 

\/Blaw,  strong  conj.  VII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  blow,  past 
blew,  pass,  partic.  blown;  Anglo-Sax,  blawan,  bleow,  blawen. 
Com  p.  Lat.  \//?<f.  Hence  blowth,  obsolete. 

Board,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  bord,  Moeso-Goth.  baurd.  Hence  to 
board,  boarding. 

Bold,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  bald,  Moeso-Goth.  balths.  Hence  bold- 
en,  boldness. 

Bone,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  ban,  Moeso-Goth.  bain. 

Boom,  Anglo-Sax,  beam,  a  tree,  beam ;  Moeso-Goth.  bagms, 
a  tree. 

Borough,  a  town,  Anglo-Sax,  burh,  (genit.  burga,)  a  citadel ; 
Mceso  Goth,  baurgs,  id.  Gr.  nvgyog,  a  tower;  from  Anglo-Sax. 
\/foarg5  to  defend,  Moeso-Goth.  foarg,  id. 

Both,  a  numeral,  Anglo-Sax,  buta,  ba,  Moeso-Goth.  bai,  Lat. 
ambo,  Gr.  &{u<pw. 

/Y/Brag,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  bring,  past  brought, 
pass,  partic.  brought;  Anglo-Sax,  bringan,  brohte,  gebroht;  Moe- 
so-Goth. briggan,  brahta,  briggans. 

Note. — In  place  of  Moeso-Goth.  and  Anglo-Sax,  h,  the  Eng- 
lish employs  gh  or  g,  which  however  has  ceased  to  be  pro- 
nounced. The  n  is  epenthetic,  as  in  think. 

\/Brak,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  break,  past 
broke,  pass,  partic.  broken  or  broke ;  Anglo-Sax,  brecan,  brcec, 
brocen;  Moeso-Goth.  brikan,  brak,  brukans.  Comp.  Lat.  \/frag. 
Hence  breach,  breakfast. 

Bright,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  beorht,  bryht,  Moeso-Goth.  bairhts. 
Hence  brighten. 


124 


VOCABULARY. 


Note  1. — On  the  guttural  gh,  see  note  on  \/Brag. 

Note  2. — The  transposition  of  r,  seems  to  have  begun  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  to  have  been  continued  in  the  English. 

Broad,  adj.  Anglo.  Sax.  brad,  Moeso-Goth.  braids. 

Brow,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  brcew,  breaw,  Mceso-Goth.  braw,  Gr. 
dygvg. 

\/Bii  or  be,  (part  of  substantive  verb,  be,  was,  been,)  un- 
certain strong  conj.  whence  the  English  forms,  be,  being,  been; 
Anglo-Sax,  infin.  beon,  indie,  beo,  subj.  beo,  imper.  beo,  pres. 
partic.  beonde.  Comp.  Lat.  \/fu,  Gr.  */yv,  Sansk.  \/bhu. 
The  conjugation  of  the  Greek  and  Sanskrit  verbs  is  complete. 
Hence  being,  n. 

\/Bud,  (to  command,)  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng. 
bid,  past  bade  or  bid,  pass,  partic.  bidden  or  bid ;  Anglo-Sax. 
beodan,  bad,  boden;  Mceso-Goth.  biudan,  baud,  budans. 

Note. — The  vowel  of  the  root  is  deduced  from  the  Mceso- 
Gothic. 

\/Biigr,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  buy,  past  bought,  pass, 
partic.  bought;  Anglo-Sax,  bycgan,  bohte,  geboht ;  Moeso-Goth. 
bugjan,  bauhta,  bauhts. 

Note. — For  the  guttural  gh,  see  note  on  Brag. 

\/But,  strong  conj.  XIT.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  beat,  past  beat, 
pass,  partic.  beaten  or  beat;  Anglo-Sax,  beatan,  beot,  beaten. 
Comp.  Lat.  batuo.  For  a  full  investigation  of  this  Teutonic 
root,  see  Fowler's  English  Gram.  Ed.  I.  p.  351.  Hence  bat, 
bate,  beat,  n.  beetle,  make-bate. 

By,  prep.  Anglo-Sax,  bi,  be,  big,  Mceso-Goth.  bi,  Gr.  Inl, 
Sansk.  a bhi. 

>y/Cam,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  come,  past 
came,  pass,  partic.  come;  Anglo-Sax,  cuman,  com,  cumen;  Mceso- 
Goth.  qiman,  gam,  qumans. 

\/Can,  strong  conj.  III.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  Teen,  past  kenned, 
pass,  partic.  kenned;  Mceso-Goth.  kunnan,  kuntha,  kunths;  and 
also  the  preteritive  auxiliary  English  verb,  can,  could, 

Note. — It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  spelling  of 
could  is  an  unhappy  imitation  of  would  and  should. 

^V/Catcli,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  catch,  past  caught  or 
catched,  pass,  partic.  caught  or  catched. 

\/Chaw  or  chew,  uncertain  strong  conj.  whence  Eng.  chaw 
or  chew,  past  chawed  or  chewed,  pass,  partic.  chawed  or  chewed; 
Anglo-Sax,  ceowan,  ceaw,  gecoiven. 

\/Cliid?  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  chide,  past  chid, 
pass,  partic.  chidden  or  chid;  Anglo-Sax,  cidan,  cad,  ciden. 


TEUTONIC    ROOTS   AND    STEM-WORDS.  125 

,  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  choose,  past 
chose,  pass,  partic.  chosen;  Anglo  Sax.  ceosan,  ceas,  coren ;  Mce- 
so-Goth.  kiusan,  kcrus,  kusans.  Hence  choice. 

Note. — The  vowel  of  the  root  is  deduced  from  the  Moeso- 
Gothic. 

\/Claf,  (to  adhere,)  strong  conj.  IV.  Schrn.  whence  Eng. 
cleave,  past  cleaved,  pass,  partic.  clea ved;  Anglo- Sax.  clifigan. 

\/€Ia,iiiI>,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  climb,  past 
climbed,  pass,  partic.  climbed ;  Anglo-Sax,  climban,  clamb, 
clumben. 

\/t.1sing,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  cling,  past 
clung,  pass,  partic.  clung;  Anglo-Sax,  clingan.  Hence  clang,  n. 

Clock,  Anglo-Sax,  clucga,  a  bell,  clock.  The  term  is  ono- 
matopoetic,  and  of  course  kindred  to  other  onomatopoetic 
words ;  as,  to  clack,  to  cluck. 

\/€Iuf,  (to  divide,)  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng. 
cleave,  past  cleft,  pass,  partic.  cleft  or  cleaved;  Anglo-Sax,  clufan, 
deaf,  clofen.  Hence  cleaver,  cleft,  cleavage. 

Corn,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  corn,  Mceso-Goth.  kaum,  Lat.  oranum. 
Hence  kernel. 

\/€raw,  strong  conj.  VII.  Schrn.  whence  Eng.  wow,  past 
crowed,  pass,  partic.  crowed;  Anglo-Sax,  crawan,  creow,  crawen. 
Hence  crow,  n. 

X/Oa^f,  strong  conj.  II.  Sehm.  whence  Eng.  dig,  past  dug  or 
digged,  pass,  partic.  dug  or  digged;  Anglo-Sax,  dician.  Hence 
dike,  ditch. 

/V/Oalf,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng\  delve,  past 
delved,  pass,  partie.  delved;  Anglo-Sax,  del  fen,  dealf,  dolfen. 

\/i>ar,  uncertain  strong  conj.  whence  Eng.  dare,  past  durst; 
Anglo-Sax,  dearran,  dorste ;  Mceso-Goth.  daursun,  daurste. 
Com  p.  Gr.  \/^«o^  or  ^a^cc. 

Note. — Observe  Grimm's  law ;  Gr.  /\/t>«oa,  Eng.  dare,  Old 
High  Germ,  \ftar. 

Dark,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  deorc. 

Deer,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  deor,  Moeso-Go-th.  dius,  Gr.  •&fy>. 

Note. — Observe  Grimm's  law  ;  Gr.  ^rjo,  Eng.  deer,  Old  High 
Germ.  tior. 

\/Oif,  uncertain  strong  conj.  whence  Eng.  dive,  past  dived, 
(O.  E.  dove,)  pass. partic.  dived;  Anglo-Sax,  dufian,  dyfde,doven* 

\/I>o,  uncertain  strong  conj.  whence  Eng.  do,  past  didr  (with 
reduplication,)  pass,  partic.  done;  Anglo-Sax,  don,  dyde,  gedon; 
(Moeso-Goth.  deds,  n.  a  deed).  Comp.  Gr.  \/^87  Saask,  dha*. 


126  VOCABULARY. 


Note.  —  Observe  Grimm's  law,  Gr.  \/^e>  Eng.  do,  Old  High 
Germ.  tuon. 

Door,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  duru,  dyr,  Mceso-Goth.  daur,  Gr.  &vga. 

Note.  —  Observe  Grimm's  law  ;  Gr.  &vga,  Eng.  door,  Old  High 
Germ,  tor,  turi. 

\/I>ra^,  strong  conj.  IV.  Sclim.  whence  Eng.  draw,  past 
drew,  pass,  partic.  drawn;  Anglo-Sax,  dragan,  droll,  dragen; 
Mceso-Goth.  dragan,  drog,  dragans.  Comp.  Lat.  \/trah.  Hence 
Eng.  draught,  draft,  also  to  drag,  with  weak  conjugation. 

Note.  —  Observe  Grimm's  law  in  the  final  letters  of  the  root; 
Lat.  \ftrah,  Eng.  drag,  Old  High  Germ,  \ftrak. 

\AOi*ank,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  drink,  past 
drank,  pass,  partic.  drunk;  Anglo-Sax,  drincan,  dranc,  druncen; 
Moeso-Goth.  drigkan,  dragk,  drugkans.  Hence  drunken,  adj. 

\/J>rif?  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  drive,  past 
drove,  pass,  partic.  driven;  Moeso-Goth.  dreiban,  draif,  dribans. 
Hence  drove,  n.  drift. 

\/I>iicli,  past  ducked,  pass,  partic.  ducked,  weak  conj. 
Comp.  Lat.  tingo,  Gr.  r^yw. 

\/Ear9  (to  plow,)  obs.  past  eared,  pass,  partic.  eared,  weak 
conj.  ;  Anglo-Sax,  erian,  Moeso-Goth.  arjan.  Comp.  Lat.  aro, 
Gr.  agou).  Hence  earth,  earable. 

Ear,  (of  corn,)  n.  Anglo-Sax,  cehher,  ear,  (see  Prelim.  Rem. 
12.)  Moeso-Goth.  ahs,  (gen.  ahsis,)  from  a  root  corresponding 
with  the  root  of  Lat.  acer,  Gr.  axgo*. 

Ear,  (organ  of  hearing,)  n.  Anglo-Sax,  eare,  Moeso-Goth. 
auso,  Lat.  auris,  Gr.  olg. 

Egg,  n.  (0.  E.  ey<)  Anglo-Sax,  ceg,  Lat.  ovum,  Gr.  woV. 

Eight,  a  cardinal  numeral,  Anglo-Sax,  eahta,  Mceso  Goth. 
ahtau,  Lat.  octo,  Gr.  £xrw.  Hence  eighth,  eighty. 

Etl,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  elne,  Moeso-Goth.  aleina,  Lat.  ulna,  Gr. 
(btaV?/.  Hence  elbow. 

End,i\.  Anglo-Sax,  ende,  Mceso-Goth.  andeis.    Hence  endless. 

Ever,  (0.  E.  aye?)  n.  (often  used  as  an  adverb,)  Anglo-Sax. 
a,  awa,  afer;  Mceso-Goth.  aivs,  Lat.  aevum,  Gr.  fat.  Hence 
everlasting. 

Ewe,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  eowu,  Mceso  Goth,  am,  Lat.  ovis,  Gr.  oig. 

Eye,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  eage,  Mceso-Goth.  augo,  Lat.  oculus,  Gr. 
oxo?. 

/V/Faht?  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  fight,  past 
fought,  pass,  partic.  fought;  Anglo-Sax,  feohtan^  feaht,feohten. 
Hence  fight,  n. 


TEUTONIC    ROOTS    AND   STEM-WORDS.  12? 

\/Fall,  strong  conj.  VIII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  fall,  past 
fell,  pass,  partic.  fallen  ;  Anglo-Sax,  feallan,  feoll,  gefeollen. 
Com  p.  Lat,/a//o,  to  stumble,  deceive,  Gr.  \XtfqDdUw,  id.  Hence 
fall,  n.  windfall. 

\/Fand5  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  find,  past 
found,  pass,  partic.  found;  Anglo-Sax.  findan,  fand,  funden; 
Moeso-Goth.  finthan,  fanth,  funthans.  Hence  foundling. 

\/Far?  strong,  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  fare,  past/am£, 
pass,  partic.  fared  ;  Anglo-Sax,  faran,  for,  faren.  Comp.  Lat. 
per  go,  Gr.  nelQu.  Hence  fare,  n.  welfare,  farewell. 

Fell,  (skin,)  n.  Anglo  S&x.fell,  Moeso-Goth.  fill,  Lat.  pellis. 

\/Fetcli9  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  fetch,  past  fetched,  pass. 
parti  c.  fetched;  Anglo-Sax,  feccan  or  fetian.  fette,  gefetod. 

Few,  adj.  of  quantity,  Anglo-Sax,  feawa,  Lat.  paucus. 

Fire,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  fyr,  Gr.  nvy. 

Fish,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  fisc,  Mceso-Goth  fisfcs,  Lat.  piscis. 

Five,  an  ordinal  numeral,  Anglo-Sax,  fif,  Mceso-Goth.  fimf, 
Lat.  qainque,  Gr.  ntune.  Hence  fifth. 

X/Flang1,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  fling,  past 
flung,  pass,  partic.  flung. 

\fFlu,  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  flow,  past  flowed, 
pass,  partic.  flowed;  Anglo-  Sax.  flowan,fleow.  Comp.  Lat.fluo, 
Gr.  cpkuw. 

\/FIug9  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  fly,  past  flew, 
pass,  partic.  flown  ;  Anglo-Sax,  fleogan,  fleah,  flogen.  Hence 
fly,  \\.flight. 

Foal,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  fole,  Mceso-Goth.  fula,  Lat.  pullus,  Gr. 
n&kog. 

Foot,  n.  Anglo-Sax./o/,  Moeso-Goth.  fotus,  Lat.  pes,  (genit. 
perils,)  Gr.  noug,  (genit.  nodog). 

For,  a  Teutonic  preposition,  found  also  in  the  other  Indo- 
European  languages;  as,  Eng.  for,  Anglo-Sax,  for,  Mceso-Goth. 
faura.  Comp.  Lat.  prae  and  pro,  Gr.  7Ty6. 

/V/Fralit,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  freight,  past 
freighted,  pass,  partic.  fraught  or  freighted.  Hence  freight,  n. 
freightage. 

/V/Frus,  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  freeze,  past 
froze,  pass,  pai  tic.  frozen  ;  Anglo-Sax,  frusan,  freas,  froren. 


(part  of  irregular  verb  go,  went,  gone,)  uncertain 
strong  conj.  whence  Eng.  go,  pass,  partic.  gone  ;  Anglo-Sax. 
ga,n,  gangan,  pass,  partic.  gan,  gangen;  Mceso-Goth.  gaggan, 


128  VOCABULARY. 

pass,  partic.  gangans ;  both  of  which  languages  also  borrow 
their  past  tenses  from  another  root.  Hence  gang*  gangue. 

\/€raf,  strong  conj.  III.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  give,  past  gave, 
pass,  partic.  given;  Anglo-Sax,  gifan,  geaf,  gifen;  Mceso-Goth. 
giban,  gof,  gibans.  Hence  gift. 

Gall,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  gealla,  (see  note  on  All,)  Gr.  #0X7). 

\/Gann,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  begin,  past 
began,  pass,  partic.  begun;  Anglo-Sax,  beginnan,  began,  begunnen; 
Mceso-Goth.  ginnan,  gann,  gunnans.  Hence  beginning. 

\/Oat,  strong  conj.  III.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  get,  past  got, 
pass,  partic.  gotten  or  got;  Anglo- Sax.  ongitan,  ongeat,  ongiten; 
Mceso-Goth.  gitan,  gat,  gitans. 

Goat,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  gat,  Mceso-Goth.  gaitei,  Lat.  haedus. 

Note. — This  stem- substantive  accords  with  Grimm's  law, 
both  in  its  anlaut  and  its  auslaut,  \.  e.  both  in  its  initial  and 
in  its  final  consonant ;  as,  Lat.  haedus,  Eng.  goat,  Old  High 
Germ.  keiz. 

Gold,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  gold,  Mceso-Goth.  gulths.  Hence  gild, 
golden. 

Goom,  (in  bridegroom  for  bridegoom,)  n.  Anglo-Sax,  guma^ 
Lat.  homo. 

Goose,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  gos,  Gr.  %^v. 

\/Oraf,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  grave,  past 
graved,  pass,  partic.  graven  or  graved;  Anglo-Sax,  grofan,  grof, 
grafen;  Mceso-Goth.  graban,  grof,  grabans.  Comp.  Gr.  /v/j^qp. 
Hence  grave,  n.  groove. 

/V/Grand,  strong  conj.  II.  Schro.  whence  Eng.  grind,  past 
ground,  pass,  partic.  ground;  Anglo-Sax,  grindan,  grandf 
grunden. 

\/Orat,  strong  conj.  X.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  greet,  past 
greeted,  pass,  partic.  greeted;  Anglo-Sax,  gretan,  grette,  gretten; 
Mceso-Goth.  gretan,  gaigrot,  gretanz. 

N0te  \f — Mceso-Goth.  gretan,  to  lament,  and  Anglo-Sax,  gre- 
tan, to  salute,  refer  us  to  the  original  meaning  '  to  cry  out.' 

Note  2. — -The  verb  to  greet  is  the  best  example  that  we  have 
of  this  conjugation  in  English. 

Great,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  great. 

Gross,  adj.  the  High  German  form  of  great 

\/Oru,  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  w hence  Eng.  grow,  past  grew, 
pass,  partic.  grown;  Anglo-Sax,  growan,  greow,  growen.  Hence 
growth. 

Guest,  n.  Anglo  Sax.  gcust,  Mceso-Goth.  gasts,  Lat.  hostis. 


TEUTONIC   ROOTS   AKD   STEM-WORDS.  129 

\/IIaf9  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  heave,  past  hove 
or  heaved,  pass,  partic.  Aoi^ra  or  heaved;  Anglo  Sax.  hebban,  libf, 
hafen;  Moeso-Goth.  hafjan,  hof,  kafans.  Hence  heft. 

Hair,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  hoer,  Lat.  rrmis.     Hence  hairy,  hairless. 

/S/Hald,  strong  conj.  VIII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  hold,  past 
held,  pass,  partic.  Ae/6^ ;  Anglo-Sax,  healdan,  heold,  healden; 
Moeso-Goth.  haldan,  haihald,  haldans. 

\/Ha,Ip,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  help,  past 
helped,  pass,  partic.  helped;  Anglo-Sax,  helpan,  healp,  holpen  ; 
Moeso-Goth.  hilpan,  halp,  hulpa.ns. 

Halt,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  healt,  Moeso-Goth.  halts,  Lat.  claudus. 

Note. — This  stem-adjective  accords  with  Grimm's  law,  as  it 
respects  the  auslaut  or  final  consonant ;  as,  Lat.  claudus,  Eng. 
halt,  Germ.  halz. 

<V/Hang,  strong  conj.  VIII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  hang,  past 
hung  or  hanged,  pass,  partic.  hung  or  hanged ;  Anglo-Sax. 
hangian,  heng,  hang  en  ;  Moeso-Goth.  hahan,  haihah,  hahans. 

/V/Hanth,  (to  take,)  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng. 
hend,  (obsolete,)  past  hent,  pass,  partic.  hent,  (comp.  forehend ;) 
Moeso-Goth.  hinthan,  hanth,  hunthans.  Comp.  Lat.  \fhend, 
(in  prehendo).  Hence  hand,  hound. 

Note. — The  meeting  of  the  Teutonic  and  Latin  in  this  root 
is  interesting. 

Hard,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  heard,  (see  note  on  AIL)  Moeso-Goth. 
hardus,  Gr.  x^oro?,  strength. 

Harm,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  hearm,  (see  note  on  All}. 

Heap,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  heap,  Lat.  copia. 

Heart,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  heorte,  Moeso-Goth.  hairts,  Lat.  cor, 
(gen.  cordis,)  Gr.  xugdla. 

Note. — The  final  consonant  of  this  stem-noun  accords  with 
Grimm's  law ;  as,  Lat.  cordis,  Eng.  heart,  Gerrn.  herz. 

\/Ael9  (to  hide,)  weak  conj.  whence  En<r.  hele,  (obsolete,) 
to  hide,  Anglo-Sax,  helan,  Moeso-Goth.  huljan.  Comp.  Lat. 
celo.  Hence  hole,  hell,  hollow. 

Hemp,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  hcenep,  Lat.  cannabis,  Gr.  xctvvv.fil<;. 

Hen,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  hana,  a  cock,  henne,  a  hen  ;  Mceso-Goth. 
hana,  a  cock ;  from  Old  High  Germ,  hanan,  to  sing.  Comp. 
Lat.  cano. 

\/Hew,  strong  conj.  XII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  hew,  past 
hewed,  pass,  partic.  hewn ;  Anglo-Sax,  heawan,  heow,  heawen. 
Hence  hoe,  hay. 

\/Hicl,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  hide,  past  hid 
pass,  partic.  hidden  or  hid;  Anglo-Sax,  hydan,  hyd,  hidden. 


130  VOCABULARY. 

High,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  heah,  heag,  Mceso-Goth.  hauhs.  Hence 
height. 

\/JHit,  strong  conj.  XL  Schm.  whence  Eng.  obsolete  behight, 
past  behot,  pass,  partic.  hoten ;  Anglo-Sax,  katan,  het,  haten ; 
Mceso-Goth.  haiian,  haihait,  haitans. 

Note.T— The  verb  beliiglit  is  the  best  example  that  we  have 
of  this  conjugation  in  English. 

\/fIlacl,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  lade,  past 
laded,  pass,  partic.  laden;  Anglo-Sax,  hladan,  hlod,  gehladen. 
Hence  Load,  n. 

\/JHlup?  strong  conj.  XII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  leap,  past 
lept  or  leaped,  pass,  partic.  lept  or  leaped;  Anglo-Sax.  Ideapan^ 
hleop,  hleapen.  Hence  to  lope,  elope. 

Hot,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  hat.     Hence  heat. 

\AHrang,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  ring,  past 
rang  or  rung,  pass,  partic.  rung;  Anglo-Sax,  hringan,  ge- 
hringed. 

Kin  or  Kind,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  cyn,  cynd,  Moeso-Goth.  kuni, 
kunds,  Lat.  genus,  gens,  Gr.  yevog. 

\/I£iiaw,  strong  conj.  VII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  know,  past 
knew,  pass,  partic.  known;  Anglo-Sax,  cnawan,  cneow,  cnawen. 
Comp.  Lat.  \/gno,  Gr.  f^/yvo.  Hence  knowledge. 

Knee,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  cneow,  Mceso-Goth.  kniu,  Lat.  genu, 
Gr.  yoi'V,  Sansk.  janu. 

Note. — The  retention  of  the  formative  u  in  this  stem-noun 
is  observable. 

\XL<ag,  (to  recline,)  strong  conj.  III.  Schm.  whence  Eng. 
lie,  past  lay,  pass,  partic.  lain;  Anglo-Sax,  licgan,  lag,  legen; 
Mceso-Goth.  ligan,  lag,  ligans.  Comp.  Lat.  \//eg,  Gr.  \Ae/. 
Hence  to  lay. 

\/L<at,  strong  conj.  IX.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  let,  past  let, 
pass,  partic.  let ;  Anglo-Sax,  l&lan,  let,  lalen ;  Mceso-Goth. 
letan,  lailot,  lelans.  Hence  late,  adj.  compar.  latter  and  later ', 
superl.  last  and  latest. 

Lean,  adj.  Anglo- Sax.  hlane,  lane.     Hence  leanness. 

Light,  (not  heavy,)  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  leoht,  liht,  Moeso-Goth. 
leihts.  Hence  lightness. 

Little,  (with  formative  liquid  Z,)  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  lytel,  Moe- 
so-Goth. leitils. 

Long,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  lang,  long,  Moeso-Goth.  Jaggs,  Lat. 
longus. 

Lot,  Anglo-Sax,  hlot,  hlyt,  Moeso-Goth.  hlauts.  See  Prelim, 
Hem.  1$, 


TEUTONIC    ROOTS    AND    STEM-WORDS.  131 

\Xlttag,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  may,  past  might ;  Anglo- 
Sax,  magan,  mikte;  Moeso-Goth.  magan,  mahta.  Hence  might, 
n.  main. 

\/^fcUt,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  melt,  past 
melted,  pass,  partic.  melted;  Anglo-Sax,  melton,  mealt,  molten. 
Hence  malt,  n. 

/V/JHaw,  strong  conj.  VII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  mow,  past 
mowed,  pass,  partic.  mown  or  mowed;  Anglo-Sax,  mawan,  meow, 
mawen. 

Much,  adj.  0.  E.  mickle,  (with  formative  Z,)  Anglo-Sax. 
mycel,  Lat.  magnus,  Gr.  piyug. 

Note. — Observe  the  precession  of  vowel  sound  in  this  word. 
\/JWEii§,  uncertain  strong  conj.  whence  Eng.  must,  past  must. 
Neck,  Anglo-Sax,  hnecca.  See  Prelim.  Rein.  15. 
Oath,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  dth,  Moeso-Goth.  aiths.  Hence  oathable. 
Of,  prep.  Anglo-Sax,  of,  Moeso-Goth.  af,  Lat.  ab,  Gr.  &n6. 
Hence  off. 

Old,  compar.  elder  or  older,  superl.  eldest  or  oldest ;  adj. 
Anglo-Sax,  eald,  yldre,  yldest ;  Moeso-Goth.  altheis,  from 
Moeso-Goth.  \/altli9  to  become  old. 

On,  a  preposition,  (kindred  with  in,)  Anglo-Sax,  an,  on, 
Moeso-Goth.  ana,  Gr.  fob.  Hence  onset,  onward. 

Note. — Here  the  precession  of  vowel  sound  is  in  the  direction 
of  o  and  u. 

One,  a  cardinal  numeral,  An^flo-Sax.  an,  Moeso-Goth.  ains, 
Lat.  unus,  Gr.  elg,  (gen.  £v6$).  Hence  once,  any,  only,  oneness, 
atone,  alone. 

Ore,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  ar,  ora,  ore,  copper ;  Moeso-Goth.  aiz, 
copper ;  Lat.  aes,  (gen.  aeris,)  ore,  copper. 

Oven,  n.  Anglo  Sax.  of  en,  Moeso-Goth.  auhns,  Lat.  ignis, 
fire,  Sansk.  agni,  id. 

Note. — Here  the  precession  of  vowel  sound  is  in  the  direc- 
tion both  of  i  and  of  u. 

Ox,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  oxa,  Moeso-Goth.  auhsa,  Sansk.  uksha. 
Hence  oxeyed. 

\/Pitcli9  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  pitch,  past  pitched, 
pass,  partic.  pitched. 

A/i^uutli,  strong  conj.  III.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  queath,  past 
quoth;  Anglo-Sax,  cwethan,  cwath,  cweden;  Moeso-Goth.  qilha, 
qalh,  qitans.  Hence  bequeathe. 

Queen,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  cwen,  a  wife,  a  queen,  Moeso-Goth. 
qens,  qino,  a  woman,  Gr.  yvvr\,  id. 


132  VOCABULARY. 

\/Rami,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  run,  past,  ran 
or  run,  pass,  partic.  run;  Anglo-Sax,  yrnan,  am,  urnen;  Mceso- 
Goth.  rinnan,  rann,  runnans. 

\/Reacli,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng,  reach,  readied;  An- 
glo-Sax, racan,  rahle,  gerceht.  Comp.  Lat.  rego,  Gr.  fyfyw. 

Red,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  read,  rude,  red;  Mceso-Goth.  rauds, 
Lat.  rulilus,  Gr.  eovfrydg,  Sansk.  rohila. 

/V/Rid?  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  ride,  past  rode 
or  rid,  pass,  partic.  ridden  or  rid;  Anglo-Sax,  ridan,  rad, 
riden.  Hence  road. 

\/Ri§,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  rise,  past  rose, 
pass,  partic.  risen ;  Anglo-Sax,  risan,  ras,  risen ;  Moeso-Goth. 
reisan,  rais,  risans. 

\/Riv,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  rive,  past  rived, 
pass,  partic.  riven  or  rived. 

\/Rot,  uncertain  strong  conj.  whence  Eng.  rot,  past  rotted, 
pass,  partic.  rotted;  Anglo-Sax,  rotian. 

Rough,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  hreof,  hreog.  Hence  roughly, 
roughness. 

\/Sag,  uncertain  strong  conj.  whence  Eng.  saw,  past  sawed, 
pass,  partic.  sawn  or  sawed,  (Anglo- Sax.  saga,  a  saw). 

\/Sak,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  forsake,  past 
forsook,  pass,  partic.  forsaken  ;  Anglo-Sax,  sacan,  soc,  sacen  ; 
Mceso-Goth.  sakan,  sok,  sakans.  Hence  sake,  n. 

\/Sal,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  sell,  past  sold,  pass,  partic. 
sold;  Anglo- Sax.  syllan,  sealde,  seald.  Hence  sale. 

\/§ang,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  sing,  past  sang 
or  sung,  pass,  partic.  sung;  Anglo-Sax,  singan,  sang,  sun- 
gen;  Moeso-Goth.  siggvan,  saggv,  saggvans.  Hence  song, 
singer. 

\/SanK,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  sink,  past  sank 
or  sunk,  pass,  partic.  sunk;  Anglo-Sax,  sincan,  sane,  suncen; 
Mceso-Goth.  siggqa,  saggq,  suggqans. 

\/Sat,  strong  conj.  111.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  sit,  past  sat, 
pass,  partic.  sitten  or  sat;  Anglo-Sax,  sittan,  sat,  seten;  Moeso- 
Goth.  sitan,  sat,  sitans.  Comp.  Lat,  \fsed,  Gr.  \/£d.  Hence 
seat,  set,  v.  sitter,  setter,  settle. 

\/§aw,  strong  conj.  III.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  see,  past  saw, 
pass,  partic.  seen;  Anglo-Sax,  seon,  seah,  gesewen;  Moeso-Goth. 
saiivan,  saw,  saiwans.  Hence  sight. 

\/Saw,  strong  conj.  VII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  sow,  past 
sowed,  pass,  partic.  sown  or  sowed;  Anglo  Sax.  sawan,  seow, 


TEUTONIC    ROOTS    AND    STEM-  WORDS.  133 

sawen;  Mceso-Goth.  saian,  saiso,  saians.  (Comp.  Lat.  sevi.) 
Hence  seed, 

iV/Scaf,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  shave,  past 
shaved,  pass,  partic.  shaven  or  shaved  ;  Anglo-Sax,  scafan,  scof, 
scafen  ;  Moeso-Goth.  skaban,  skof,  skabans.  Comp.  Lat.  scabo. 

Note.  —  The  simple  English  sound  sh  has  arisen  from  the 
compound  sound  sc,  (s-}-c.) 

\/ScaSiv  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  shake,  past 
shook,  pass,  partic.  shaken  ;  Anglo-Sax,  scacan,  scoc,  scacen. 

Note.  —  The  simple  sound  sh  has  arisen  from  the  compound 
sound  sc,  (s+c). 

\/§cap,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  shape,  past 
shaped,  pass,  partic.  shapen  or  shaped;  Anglo-Sax,  scyppan, 
scop,  sceapen;  Moeso-Goth.  skapjan,  skop,  skapans.  Comp.  Gr. 


Note.  —  -See  note  on 

\/Scar,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  shear,  past 
sheared,  pass,  partic.  shorn  or  sheared;  Anglo-Sax,  sceran, 
sccer,  scoren.  Hence  share,  shire,  shears. 

V'Sciii,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  shine,  past 
shone  or  shined,  pass,  partic.  shone  or  shined  ;  Anglo-Sax. 
scinan,  scan,  scinen  ;  Moaso-Goth.  skeinan,  skain,  skinans. 

/V/ScranR,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  shrink,  past 
shrank  or  shrunk,  pass,  partic.  shrunken  or  shrunk  ;  Anglo-Sax. 
scrincan,  scranc,  scruncen.  Hence  shrinkage. 

/V/Scu,  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  shew  or  show, 
past  shelved  or  showed,  pass,  partic.  shewn  or  shown  ;  Anglo- 
Sax.  sceawigan. 

\/Scul,  uncertain  strong  conj.  whence  Eng.  shall,  past 
should  ;  Anglo-Sax,  sculon,  sceolde  ;  Moeso-Goth.  skulan,  skul- 
da,  skulds. 

Note.  —  See  note  on  \/Scaf. 

\/Scut,  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  shoot,  past 
shot,  pass,  partic.  shot;  Anglo-Sax,  sceatan,  sceat,  scoten.  Hence 
shott  n. 

Short,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  scort,  sceort  ;  Lat.  curtus. 

Note.  —  A  prosthetic  s  is  sometimes  joined  to  Teutonic  words, 
as  maintained  by  Dr.  Webster.  See  his  Am.  Diet.  art.  smelt. 

\/Slali,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  slay,  past  slew, 
pass,  partic.  slain;   Anglo-Sax,  slean,   sloh,  yeslagen  ;   Moeso- 
Goth.  slahan,  sloh,  slahans.     Hence  slaughter. 
12 


134  VOCABULARY. 

\/Slaiig,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  sling,  past  slung, 
pass,  partic.  slung ;  Anglo-Sax,  slingan.  Hence  sling,  n. 

V$laiik?  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  slink,  past 
slunk,  pass,  partic.  slunk  ;  Anglo-Sax,  slincan. 

\/Slicl,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  slide,  past  slid, 
past  slidden  or  sfo'rf;  Anglo-Sax,  slidan,  slad,  sliden. 
Slow,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  slaw.     Hence  slowness. 

Small,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  smcel. 

\7Smit,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  smite,  smote, 
smitten  or  smit ;  Anglo-Sax,  smitan,  smat,  smiten  ;  Moeso-Goth. 
smeitan,  smait,  smitans. 

\XSnaw,  strong  conj.  VII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  snow,  past 
snowed,  pass,  partic.  snowed;  Anglo-Sax,  snaivan.  Hence 
snow,  n. 

Soft,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  seft.     Hence  softness. 

\/Spaim,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  spin,  past 
spun,  pass,  partic.  spun;  Anglo-Sax,  spinnan,  span,  spunnen  ; 
Moeso-Goth.  spinnan,  spann,  spunnans. 

\/Spat,  strong  conj.  HI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  spit,  past  spat 
or  spit,  pass,  partic.  spitten  or  spit ;  Anglo-Sax,  spcetan,  spcette, 
spcet.  Hence  spit,  n.  spittle. 

\/Sprak,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  speak,  past 
spoke,  pass,  partic.  spoken;  Anglo-Sax,  sprecan,  sprcec,  ge- 
sprecen. 

\/sPrJmg)  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  spring,  past 
sprang  or  sprung,  pass,  partic.  sprung ;  Anglo  Sax.  springan, 
sprang,  sprungen.  Hence  spring,  n. 

\/!Stacl?  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  stand,  past 
stood,  pass,  partic.  stood  ;  Anglo-Sax,  standan,  stod,  gestanden ; 
Moeso-Goth.  standan,  stoth,  stothans. 

Note. — This  verb  has  been  supposed  to  contain  a  reduplica- 
tion, as  if  Anglo-Sax,  standan  were  for  stanstan.  Comp.  \/Do. 

\/§taf?  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  stave,  past  stove 
or  staved,  pass,  partic.  stove  or  staved.  Hence  staff. 

/V/Stak,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  stick,  past  stuck, 
pass,  partic.  stuck  ;  Moeso-Goth.  stikan,  stak,  stukans. 

\/Stal,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  steal,  past  stole, 
pass,  partic.  stolen;  Anglo-Sax,  stelan,  steel,  stolen;  Moeso- 
Goth.  stilan,  stal,  stulans. 

\/Stang,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  sting,  past 
stung,  pass,  partic.  stung ;  Anglo-Sax,  stingan,  stang.  stungen. 
Comp.  Lat.  \fsting. 


TEUTONIC    ROOTS  AND    STEM-WORDS.  135 

\XStank,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  stink,  past 
stank  or  stunk,  pass,  partic.  stunk  ;  Anglo-Sax,  stincan,  stanc, 
stuncen. 

/V/Strang-,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  string,  past 
strung,  pass,  partic.  strung.  Comp.  Lat.  */strig,  (in  stringo) 
Hence  strong,  strength. 

\/Strid9  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  stride,  past 
strode  or  strid,  pass,  partic.  stridden  or  strid.  Comp.  Anglo- 
Sax,  strcede,  n. 

\/Strif,  strong  conj.  Y.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  strive,  past 
strove,  pass,  partic.  striven.  Hence  strife. 

\/Strilc9  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  strike,  past 
struck,  pass,  partic.  stricken  or  struck.  Comp.  Anglo-Sax. 
strica,  a  stroke,  n. ;  Moeso-Goth.  striks,  id. 

\/§trii,  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  strew  or 
strow,  past  strewed  or  strowed,  pass,  partic.  strewed  or  strowed  ; 
Anglo- Sax.  streowigan.  Comp.  Lat.  sterno,  Gr.  oro^tWv/^. 

\/Siid,  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  seethe,  past  soc? 
or  seethed,  pass,  partic.  sodden  or  seethed  ;  Anglo-Sax,  seothan, 
seath,  sod  en. 

\/§iilt,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  see&,  past  sought,  pass,  par- 
tic,  sought ;  Anglo-Sax,  secan,  sohte,  gesohte.  Hence  beseech. 

Note. — Some  words  combine  the  strong  and  the  weak  inflec- 
tion in  the  same  form.  These  are  called  verbs  of  the  mixed 
conjugation. 

\/SwalI9  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  swell,  past 
swelled,  pass,  partic.  swollen  or  swelled ;  Anglo-Sax,  swellan, 
sweoll,  swollen.  Hence  swelling,  n. 

\/$waiiiin,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  swim,  paat 
swam  or  swum,  pass,  partic.  swum;  Anglo-Sax,  swimman, 
swamm  ;  Moeso-Goth.  svimman,  svamm,  svummans. 

\/Swang,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  swing,  past 
swung,  pass,  partic.  swung  ;  Anglo-Sax,  swingan,  swang. 

\/Swar?  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  swear,  past 
swore,  pass,  partic.  sworn;  Anglo-Sax,  swerigan^swor,  gesworen; 
Moeso-Goth.  svaran,  svor,  svarans. 

Swift,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  swift.     Hence  swiftness. 

\XTab,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  teach,  past  taught,  pass, 
partic.  taught;  Anglo-Sax,  tcecan,  tcehte,  tceht ;  Moeso-Goth. 
teihan,  taih,  taihans.  Comp.  Lat.  dico,  Gr.  fauivtp*. 

Note. — This  verb  exhibits  Grimm's  law,  both  in  its  initial 
and  in  its  final  consonant ;  as,  Lat.  dico,  Eng.  teach,  Germ. 
zeigen. 


136  VOCABULARY. 


,  strong  conj.  X.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  take,  past  took, 
pass,  partic.  taken  ;  Moeso-Goth.  tekan,  taitok,  tekans.  Comp. 
Gr.  dixo{iai. 

\/Tal,  mixed  conj.  I.  whence  Eng.  tell,  past  told,  pass,  par- 
tie.  told  ;  Anglo-Sax,  tellan,  tealde,  geteald.  Hence  tale. 

\/Tam,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  tame,  past 
tamed,  pass,  partic.  tamed  ;  Anglo-Sax,  tamian,  Mceso-G-oth. 
timan,  tarn,  tumans.  Comp.  Lat.  domo,  Gr.  da/uaw. 

\/Tar,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  tear,  past  tore, 
pass,  partic.  torn;  Anglo-Sax,  teran,  tcer,  tor  en  ;  Moeso-Goth. 
fair  an,  tar,  taurans.  Hence  tear,  n. 

Tear,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  tcehr,  tcer,  tear,  Moeso-Goth.  tagr,  Old 
Lat.  dacrima,  Gr.  d&xQv. 

Note.  —  This  word  follows  Grimm's  law  ;  as,  Gr.  d&xgv,  Eng. 
tear,  Germ,  zahre. 

Ten,  an  ordinal  numeral,  Anglo-Sax,  tyn,  ten,  Moeso-Goth. 
taihun,  Lat.  decem.  Gr.  dixa.  Hence  tenth,  tithe. 

/V/Thak,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  think,  past  thought, 
pass,  partic.  thought;  Anglo-Sax,  thincan,  thohte,  gethoht  ; 
Mceso-Goth.  thagkjan,  thahta.  Comp.  Lat.  \/tag,  (whence 
tango.) 

Note.  —  This  root  accords  with  Grimm's  law,  both  in  its  ini- 
tial and  its  final  consonant;  as,  Lat.  tango,  Eng.  think,  Old 
High  Germ,  denhan. 

That,  Anglo-Sax,  thcet,  Moeso-Goth.  thata,  Lat.  tud,  (in 
istud.) 

Note  1.—  This  pronoun  exhibits  Grimm's  law,  both  in  its  ini- 
tial and  in  its  final  consonant  ;  as,  Lat.  tud,  Eng.  that,  Germ. 
das. 

Note  2.  —  The  Anglo-Sax,  and  Moeso-Goth.  th  was  probably 
pronounced  hard.  The  softening  of  the  sound  belongs  to  the 
English. 

Thou,  sec.  pers.  pron.  Anglo-Sax,  thu,  Moeso-Goth.  thu,  Lat. 
tu,  Gr.  o-v,  it,  Sansk.  tuam. 

Note.  —  On  the  sound  of  th,  see  note  on  That. 

\/Tliraw,  strong  conj.  VII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  throw,  past 
threw,  pass,  partic.  thrown  ;  Anglo  Sax.  thrawan,  threow,  thrww- 


f,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  thrive,  past 
throve  or  thrived,  pass,  partic.  thriven  or  thrived.  Hence  thrift. 

V^Tliriist,  past  thrust,  pass,  partic.  thrust,  weak  conj. 
Comp.  Lat.  trudo. 

Thumb,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  thuma. 


TEUTONIC    ROOTS    AND    STEM-WORDS.  137 

Note. — The  labial  nasal  m  seems  to  have  evolved  from  itself 
in  English  a  mute  of  the  same  organ.  Comp.  crumb. 

Tongue,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  tunge,  Moeso-Goth.  tuggo,  Old  Lat 
dingua. 

Note. — This  term  follows  Grimm's  law  ;  as,  Lat.  dingua,  Eng. 
tongue,  Germ,  zunge. 

Tooth,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  toth,  Moeso-Goth.  tunthus,  Lat.  dens 
(genit.  dentis,)  Gr.  6<5oi5g,  (genit.  6d6vTog,)  Sansk.  danta. 

Note. — In  Anglo-Saxon  and  English,  compensation  is  made 
for  the  omission  of  n  by  the  lengthening  of  the  preceding 
vowel.  Comp.  goose,  also"  tithe. 

V'Trad,  strong  conj.  III.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  tread,  past 
trod,  pass.  J>artic.  trodden  or  trod;  Anglo-Sax,  tredan,  treed, 
treden  ;  Moeso-Goth.  trudan.  Hence  tread,  n. 

\XTng,  strong  conj.  VI.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  tug,  past  tugged, 
pass,  partic.  tugged  ;  Anglo-Sax,  teon,  tea.li,  togen  ;  Moeso-Goth. 
tiuhan,  tauh,  tauhans.  Comp.  Lat.  duco. 

Two,  an  ordinal  numeral,  Anglo-Sax,  twa,  Moeso-Goth.  tvai, 
Lat.  duo,  Gr.  dvo.  Hence  twain,  between. 

Note. — The  uh  sound  in  two,  belongs  to  the  w,  and  not  to 
the  o. 

\/Uk,  (to  add,)  strong  conj.  XII.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  eke, 
past  eked,  pass,  partic.  eked;  Anglo-Sax,  ecan,  ecte,  geeced ; 
Moeso-Goth.  aukan,  aiak,  aukans.  Comp.  Lat.  augeo,  Gr.  ati£&*>. 
\/Waf,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  weave,  past 
wove,  pass,  partic.  woven  ;  Anglo-Sax,  we/an,  gewefen.  Hence 
woof. 

\/Wak,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  wake,  woke  or 
waked,  waked;  Anglo-Sax,  wacan,  woe,  wacen ;  Mceso-Goth, 
vakan,  vok,  vakans.  Hence  awake. 

V'Waml,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  wind,  past 
wound,  pass,  partic.  wound;  Anglo-Sax,  wind  an,  wand,  wunden; 
Moeso-Goth.  vindan,  vand,  vundans. 

V^Waim,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  win,  past  won, 
pass,  partic.  won  ;  Anglo-Sax,  winnan,  wan,  wunnen. 

\/War,  strong  conj.  I.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  wear,  past  wore, 
pass,  partic.  worn  ;  Anglo-Sax,  weran. 

\/Wark,  mixed  conj.  whence  Eng.  work,  past  wrought  or 
worked,  pass,  partic.  wrought  or  worked ;  Anglo-Sax,  wyrcan, 
worhte,  geworht ;  Moeso-Goth.  vaurkjan,  vaurhta,  vaurhts. 
Comp.  Gr.  \/  £gy.  Hence  wright. 

Warm,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  wearm,  (see  note  on  All,}  Mceso- 
Goth.  warms.  Hence  warmth. 


138  VOCABULARY. 

\/Wa§Ii,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  wash,  past 
washed,  pass,  partic.  washed  ;  Anglo-Sax,  wacsan,  woes,  wcescen. 

\/Wax,  strong  conj.  IV.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  wax,  past 
waxed,  pass,  partic.  waxen  or  waxed  •  Anglo-Sax,  weaxan,  weox, 
weaxen  ;  Moeso-Goth.  vahsjan,  vohs,  vahsans. 

Weak,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  wac.     Hence  weakness. 

White,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  hwit,  Moeso-Goth.  hweits. 

Note. — This  transposition  of  h  and  w  seems  peculiar  to  the 
English. 

Wide,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  wid.     Hence  width. 

<V/Will,  mixed  cpnj.  whence  Eng.  will,  past  would  ;  "Anglo- 
Sax,  willan,  wolde ;  Moeso-Goth.  viljan,  vilda.  Comp,  Lat. 
\/vel,  (in  volo,)  Gr.  */(}ovl. 

\/Wit,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  wot,  past  wist ; 
Anglo-Sax,  witan,  wiste,  witen  ;  Moeso-Goth.  veitan,  vait,  vitans, 
to  see.  Comp.  Lat.  \/vid,  id.  Gr.  \A?,  id.  Hence  wit,  n. 

Woad,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  wad. 

Note. — The  vocalic  digraph  oa,  (pronounced  6,)  a  favorite 
English  combination,  (not  found  in  Anglo-Saxon,  Norman- 
French,  or  Latin,)  has  arisen  in  Teutonic  words  from  an  Anglo- 
Sax,  a;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  ac,  Eng.  oak ;  Anglo-Sax,  dth,  Eng. 
oath  ;  Anglo-Sax,  bat,  Eng.  boat ;  Anglo-Sax,  gat,  Eng.  goat  ; 
Anglo-Sax,  rdd,  Eng.  road  ;  Anglo-Sax,  sape,  Eng.  soap ;  An- 
glo-Sax, tad,  Eng.  toad  ;  Anglo-Sax,  wad,  Eng.  woad.  The  a 
here,  as  the  leading  vowel,  appears  to  be  added  as  an  ortho- 
graphical expedient  to  keep  the  vowel  o  long. 

Word,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  word,  wyrd,  Moeso-Goth.  vaurd,  Lat. 
verbum. 

Note. — The  connection  of  Teut.  word  and  Lat.  verbum,  is 
easily  explained  by  the  supposition  of  an  original  Sansk.  dh. 

\/Wrang,  strong  conj.  II.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  wring,  past 
wrung  or  wringed,  pass,  partic.  wrung  or  wringed  ;  Anglo-Sax. 
ivringan,  wrang,  wrungen.  Hence  wrong. 

\/Writ,  strong  conj.  V.  Schm.  whence  Eng.  write,  wrote  or 
writ,  written  or  writ ;  Anglo-Sax,  writan,  wrat,  writen.  Hence 
writ,  n. 

Yoke,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  geoc,  Moeso-Goth.  juJc,  Lai.jugum,  Gr. 
£evyog,  Sansk.  yuga*. 

Note. — The  Latin  j  was  without  doubt  pronounced  like  our  y. 

Young,  adj.  Anglo-Sax,  geong,  giung,  Moeso-Goth.  juggs,  Lat. 
juvenis,  (compar.  junior,)  Sansk.  yuvan. 

Note. — Anglo-Sax,  ge  seems  to  have  had  the  sound  of  Eng.  y. 


TEUTONIC    ROOTS    AND   STEM-WORDS.  139 

Additions. 

Beard,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  beard,  berd,  Lat.  barba.  See  note  on 
Word. 

Chin,  n.  Anglo- Sax.  tin,  cyn,  Mceso-Goth.  kinnus,  Lat.  gena, 
Gr.  Ysvstov. 

Note  1. — This  stem-noun  accords  with  Grimm's  law ;  as,  Lat. 
gena,  Mceso-Goth.  kinnus,  Old  High  Germ,  chinni. 

Note  2. — The  English  digraph  ch,  pronounced  like  tsh,  has 
arisen  in  Teutonic  words  from  an  Anglo-Sax,  c  coming  before  a 
weak  vowel ;  as,  Anglo-Sax,  tin,  Eng.  chin ;  Anglo- Sax.  did, 
Eng.  child ;  Anglo-Sax,  ceosan,  Eng.  choose.  The  pronuncia- 
tion tsh  belongs  to  the  English  language  only. 

\/IlIif 9  weak  conj.  whence  Eng.  lift,  past  lifted,  pass,  partic. 
lifted,  to  raise,  to  steal ;  Anglo-Sax,  hlifian,  hlifode,  hlifod,  to 
raise;  Mceso-Goth.  hlifan,  weak  conj.  to  steal.  Comp.  Lat. 
clepo,  id.  Gr.  Mmw,  id.  See  Prelim.  Rem.  15. 

<V/I¥Siu,  weak  conj.  whence  Eng.  lean,  past  leaned  or  leant, 
pass,  partic.  leaned  or  leant ;  Anglo-Sax,  hlinian,  hlinode,  hlinod. 
Comp.  Mceso-Goth.  hlains,  n.  a  hill ;  also  Lat.  clino,  Gr;  Mvw. 
See  Prelim.  Rem.  15. 

Horn,  n.  Anglo-Sax,  horn,  Mceso-Goth.  haurns,  Lat.  cornu, 
Gr. 


